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Systemic veins
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Pulmonary arteries
Alveoli
Pulmonary capillaries
Pulmonary veins
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Systemic arteries
Respiratory Membrane
The thin alveolar wall consists of:
Respiratory Membrane
Gas exchanges occurs across the
respiratory membrane
It is < 0.1 m thick
Lends to very efficient diffusion
Boyles Law
Volume and pressure are inversely related
volume = pressure
Intrapleural space
A thin compartment between the two pleurae
filled with intrapleural fluid
Pulmonary Pressures
Pressure gradient
The difference between intrapulmonary and
atmospheric pressures
4 Pulmonary Pressures
Atmospheric pressure
Intra-alveolar (Intrapulmonary) pressure
Intrapleural pressure
Transpulmonary pressure
Pulmonary Pressures
Atmospheric pressure
The pressure exerted by the weight of the air in the
atmosphere (~ 760 mmHg at sea level)
Intra-alveolar (Intrapulmonary) pressure
The pressure inside the lungs
Intrapleural pressure
The pressure inside the pleural space
Transpulmonary pressure
The difference between the intrapleural and intraalveolar pressure
Pleural Pressures
Intrapleural pressure
The pressure inside the pleural space or cavity
This cavity contains intrapleural fluid, necessary
for surface tension
Surface tension
The force that holds moist membranes together
due to an attraction that water molecules have
for one another
Responsible for keeping lungs patent
Surface Tension
The force of attraction between liquid
molecules
Type II alveolar cells secrete surfactant
Creates a thin fluid film in the alveoli
Inspiration
Drawing or pulling air into the lungs
Atmospheric pressure forces air into the lungs
The diaphragm moves downward, decreasing
intra-alveolar pressure
The thoracic rib cage moves upward and outward,
increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity
Surface tension
Holds the pleural membranes together, which assists
with lung expansion
Surfactant reduces surface tension within the alveoli
Inspiration
During inspiration, forces are generated that
attempt to pull the lungs away from the
thoracic wall
Surface tension of the intraplueral fluid hold
the lungs against the thoracic wall,
preventing collapse
Expiration
Pushing air out of the lungs
Results due to the elastic recoil of tissues
and due to the surface tension within the
alveoli
Expiration can be aided by:
Thoracic and abdominal wall muscles that pull
the thoracic cage downward and inward,
decreasing intra-alveolar pressure
This compresses the abdominal organs upward
and inward, decreasing the volume of the
thoracic cavity
intrapulmonary volume
intrapulmonary pressure
Alveoli are compressed, thus forcing air out
of the lungs
Examples:
Asthma
Bronchiospasm during an allergic reaction
Diffusion of Gases
Partial Pressure of Gases (Pgas)
1)
2)
Alveolar air:
1)
2)
Hemoglobin (Hb)
Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
Hb + O2 = HbO2
Hb attached to four O2 molecules is saturated
Saturated Hb is relatively unstable and easily
releases O2 in regions where the PO2 is low
Deoxyhemoglobin (HHb)
HHb = Hb + O2
The Hemoglobin-Oxygen
Dissociation Curve
Describes the relationship between the
aterial PO2 and Hb saturation
The Hb- O2 Dissociation Curve plots the
percent saturation of Hb as a function of the
PO2
The Hemoglobin-Oxygen
Dissociation Curve
Hb Saturation
Full saturation
All four heme groups of the Hb molecule in the blood are
bound to O2
Partial saturation
Not all of the heme groups are bound to O 2
The Hemoglobin-Oxygen
Dissociation Curve
Hb Unloading of O2
Factors that increase O2 unloading from
hemoglobin at the tissues:
Increased body temperature
1) Decreases Hb affinity for O2
Decreased blood pH (the Bohr effect)
1) H+ ions bind to Hb
The Hemoglobin-Oxygen
Dissociation Curve
These factors are all present during
exercise and enable Hb to release more O2
to meet the metabolic demands of working
tissues
body temperature = Hb affinity for O2
H+ ions ( pH) = Hb affinity for O2
arterial PCO2 = Hb affinity for O2
Phrenic nerve
Innervates the diaphragm
Intercostal nerves
Innervate the internal and external intercostal
muscles
Pneumotaxic Area
Includes two groups
of neurons:
Pontine Respiratory
Group
The Central Pattern
Generator
Pneumotaxic Area
The Pontine Respiratory Group
Facilitates the transition between inspiration
and expiration
Regulates the depth or the extent of inspiration
Regulates the frequency of respiration
Pneumotaxic Area
The Central Pattern Generator
A network of neurons scattered between the pons and the medulla
Irritant receptors
1) Detect inhaled particles (dust, smoke) and trigger coughing,
sneezing, or bronchiospasm
Carotid sinus
At its bifurcation into the internal and external carotid arteries
Chemoreceptor reflexes
Chemoreceptors maintain normal levels of arterial
CO2 through chemoreceptor reflexes
Increased CO2 = increased concentration of H+
ions ( pH)
Disturbances in Respiration
Hyperpnea
An in the arterial CO2 concentration with a
resultant in CSF fluid pH
This condition stimulates the
Central chemoreceptors, and
Medullary respiratory centers
Hyperventilation
More CO2 is exhaled resulting in arterial CO2
concentration
This returns arterial pH to normal levels
Acidosis
Arterial blood pH less than 7.35
Alkalosis
Arterial blood pH greater than 7.45
1) Hemoglobin
2) Bicarbonate ions
Respiratory acidosis
Respiratory alkalosis