Lecture 2 - Osteology

Anatomy of skeletal
system
Dr. SUHAIL KARIM
BSPT, PPDPT
Shifa Tameer-E Millat University

Islamabad
STMU DPT 1st Semester (General
Anatomy)
Topics of Discussion
SKELETAL SYSTEM
AXIAL SKELETON
IRREGULAR BONES
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
PNEUMATIC BONES
BONES
SESAMOID BONES
COMPOSITION OF BONES
WORMIAN OR SUTURAL
FUNCTIONS OF BONES
BONES
STRUCTURE OF BONE
BONE MARKINGS
COMPACT BONE
OSSIFICATION
CANCELLOUS OR SPONGY BONE
BLOOD SUPPLY OF BONE
BONE MARROW
PERIOSTEUM
VENOUS AND LYMPHATIC
ENDOSTEUM
SUPPLY
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
NERVE SUPPLY
DEVELOPMENTAL
CARTILAGE
CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION
HISTOLOGICAL
CLASSIFICATION
ACCORDING TO REGION
ACCORDING TO SHAPE & SIZE
(LONG, SHORT, FLAT,
IRREGULAR)
Anatomy)
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The
skeleton consists of bone and cartilage.
Younger persons have more cartilage in their

skeleton, and, as a result, the bones of
newborn babies are soft and flexible.
The skeletons consist of two parts.
1. Axial skeleton
2. Appendicular skeleton
Anatomy)
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton
It consists of
Bones of the head Skull
Bones of the neck
Hyoid bone
Cervical vertebrae
Bone of the trunk
Ribs
Sternum
Thoracic vertebrae
Lumbar vertebra
Sacrum
It consists of
Bones of upper limb
Pectoral girdle
Humerus
Radius Ulna
Hand bones
Bones of lower limb Pelvic
girdle
Femur
Tibia Fibula
Bones of foot

Anatomy)
Skeletal system

Anatomy)
BONES
Bone
is specialized connective tissue.

It is very hard and highly vascular connective
tissue.
They have an organic framework of fibrous tissues
and cells, among which inorganic salts phosphates
of calcium are deposited.
It can grow, it can repair itself and it can change
its shape in proportion to the activity and stresses
placed on it.
The bones of the body taken together are known
as the skeleton.
Anatomy)
Composition of bones
Bones consist of an organic framework of fibrous

tissues and cells.
These lie in inorganic salts (mainly phosphate of

calcium), which have been deposited, in a particular
fashion.
The fibrous tissue gives the bone resilience and

toughness.
whereas the saltsSTMU

make
it hard and rigid.
DPT 1st Semester (General
Anatomy)
Functions of bones
1. Protection
Bones can serve to protect internal organs, such as the
skull Protecting the brain or the ribs protecting the
heart and lungs.
2. Shape
Bones provide a frame to keep the body supported.
3. Blood production
The marrow, located within the medullary cavity of long
bones and the cancellous bone, produces blood cells.
4. Mineral storage
Bones act as reserves of minerals important for the
body, most notably calcium and phosphorus.
Anatomy)
Continue..
5. Movement
Bones, skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints function
together so that individual body parts or the whole body can be
manipulated in three-dimensional space.
6. Acid-base balance
Bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing
or releasing alkaline salts.
7. Detoxification
Bone tissues can also store heavy metals and other foreign elements,
removing them from the blood and reducing their effects on other
tissues. These can later be gradually released for excretion.
Anatomy)
10
STRUCTURE OF BONE
On naked eye examination of a section of dried bone, two

types of bone can be distinguished.
1. Compact
2. Cancellous
The difference between the two types depends on the

relative amount of solid matter and on the number of
spaces they contain.
All bones have a superficial thin layer of compact bone

around a central mass of spongy bone, except in places
when medullary (bone marrow) cavity replaces spongy
bone.

Anatomy)
11
Compact and cancellous bone

Anatomy)
12

Anatomy)
13
Compact bone
It forms the outer shell of bone.
It is thicker at the shaft of a long bone and thinner at the ends

of a long bone.
The compact bone of the body or shaft is known as cortical

bone and surrounds the medullary cavity.
Compact bone provides strength for weight bearing.
Compact bone is surrounded by periosteum and lined by

endosteum.
It has a lot of connective tissue fibers are arranged in layers.
They form connective tissue sheets called lamellae. Between

adjacent lamellae osteocytes are embedded.
Anatomy)
14
Most of these lamellae are arranged as concentric cylinders around central

canals.
These canals contain blood vessels and are also called Haversian canals.
This arrangement is known as Haversian system or osteon.
Each osteon is surrounded by a cementing line.
These systems lie parallel to each other and in the long axis of bone.
The osteons communicate with medullary cavity and with each other by
canals, which run transversely.
Such canals containing anastomosing vessels and are called anastomosing

canals.
The anastomosing canals communicating the central canals with medullary

cavity or outside are called Volkmanns canals.
Anatomy)
15
Cancellous or spongy bone

o
o
o
o
o
o
It is a sponge network of bony trabeculae. It is always

in the interior of bones.
In long bones it is present at the ends.
The spaces between trabeculae are filled with blood
vessels and bone marrow.
The bony spicules or trabeculae are arranged in a
pattern best suited.
This arrangements change with any alterations in the
strain exerted on the cancellous bone.
Spongy bone is always surrounded by a thin shell of
compact bone.
Anatomy)
16
Bone marrow
It fills the medullary cavities of long bones and the spaces in cancellous bone. It is of
two types.
1. Red bone marrow
2. Yellow bone marrow
At birth all of the marrow is of the red type and is a factory for making blood cells and
blood platelets.
This activity is known as heamopoiesis.
With the passage of time, the amount of red marrow decreases and is replaced by
yellow marrow which has no power of haemopoiesis.
This change begins in the distal parts of limbs and gradually involves proximal parts.
By young adult life, the limb bones contain red marrow only at their cancellous ends.
The bones that contain red marrow throughout life are
Ribs
Sternum
Vertebrae
Skull bones
Hip bone
Anatomy)
17
Periosteum
The outer surfaces of bone are covered with a thick fibrous

layer of connective tissue containing blood vessels. This is
known as periosteum.
It is responsible for nutrition of the underlying bone.
Periosteum is osteogenic. It gives rise to new bone. In a

growing person, new bone is laid down under periosteum. After
a person attains maturity and the growth has ceased. It still
retains the power to produce new bone in the repair of fractures.
Periosteum is absent at the articulating (joint) surface of bones.

Anatomy)
18
Structure of bone

Anatomy)
19
Endosteum
It
is single layered epithelium Lining the
internal surface (marrow / medullary cavity,

vascular canals) of bone.
It
is also osteogenic and takes part in
formation of new bone.

Anatomy)
20
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
Bones are classified in different ways.

1.Developmental classification.
(According to mode of development)
I. MEMBRANOUS BONES.
These bones develop through Intra membranous ossification.

Intra membranous ossification is a process of conversion of
embryonic mesenchyme directly into bone. The process is
seen in the embryo. It is a rapid process.
Membranous bones include
a. Bones of the vault of the skull
b. Bones of the face
Anatomy)
21
Continue
II. CARTILAGINOUS BONES.
These develop by the process of intracartilaginous
ossification. Here a cartilage model of future bone is
formed first which changes into bone. It is a slow
process beginning in the intrauterine life ending during
adulthood. All long bones of the body (except clavicle)
vertebrae & short bones develop by this process.
III. MEMBRANO-CARTILAGINOUS BONES.
These develop through both of the above processes.
These include bones at the junction of vault and base of
skull. For example occipital bone, etc
Anatomy)
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Continue
HISTOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION.
(According to structure / architecture)
COMPACT BONE.
It forms the outer shell of the shaft of long bones & vertebrae.
i.
II. CANCELLOUS BONE OR SPONGY BONE.

It is seen internal to compact bones and at the ends of long
bones.
According to region
Axial bones (belonging to axial skeleton)
1. a. Bones of the skull
2. b. Auditory ossicles
3. c. Vertebrae
4. d. Sternum
5. e. Ribs
2. Appendicular bones (belonging to appendicular skeleton)
1. a. Bones of the limbs
2. b. Bones of the shoulder & pelvis girdle
1.

Anatomy)
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continue..
4. According to shape & size

(Long, short, flat, irregular)
1. Long bone
2. Short bone
Long bones
These are usually tubular in shape and found
in the limbs. They are vertically
placed in human body. Their length is greater
than the breadth. They act as
levers for muscles. Their length varies from
bones of fingers (phalanges) to thigh
bones.
The anterior aspect of right humerus is shown.
Humerus is a long bone. It is present in arm.
Anatomy)
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Continue
Each long bone has a shaft or body (also called

diaphysis) and two ends. The shaft or diaphysis is
hollow containing the medullary or marrow cavity
filled with bone marrow. This part is responsible for
the strength of a bone. The shaft typically has 3
borders, which separates 3 surfaces. It appears
triangular in cross section.
Long bones have many raised areas (e.g. ridges,
crests, tubercles), which provide support where heavy
muscles are attached.
Anatomy)
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Continue
Ends of long bone are composed of cancellous bone with a thin layer of
compact bone. The ends are enlarged and smooth and are either convex or
concave. In a growing bone the ends are known as epiphyses.
The epiphysis is separated from the diaphysis by cartilage (epiphyseal

cartilage).
The portion of the diaphysis close to the epiphyseal cartilage is known as

metaphysis. When growth is complete, the epiphyseal cartilage
disappears and epiphysis unites with the diaphysis (shaft).
Every long bone does not have the above specifications. The clavicle and
ribs do not have a medullary cavity, but fulfill the other criteria of long
bones.
Anatomy)
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Continue
Superior aspect of right clavicle is shown. Clavicle is a

long bone. It is horizontally placed in the human
body. It does not have medullary cavity.

Anatomy)
27
Short bones
These bones are not long. They are short. They are
irregular. They resemble cubes.
These are found only in the wrist (carpus) and ankle
(tarsus).
They have 6 surfaces (like a cube) out of which 4 or
less are articular (i.e. take part in the formation of
joints) the remaining 2 or more are free for
attachments of ligaments and entry of blood vessels.
They do not have medullary cavity.
They have spongy bone inside with compact bone
forming outer shell.

Right Hamate
Anatomy)
Right Hamate bone. Lateral

aspect.
bone. medial aspect

28
Continue..
FLAT BONES
These resemble sandwiches. They have thin outer layers of compact bone separated
by a layer of spongy (cancellous) bone between them. Most of skull bones, sternum
scapula and parts of many other bones belong to this group.
In flat bones of the skull particularly calvaria (bone forming the roof of skull),
spongy bone containing marrow is known as diploe, which appears some years after
birth and splits each flat bone into two layers. The outer and inner layers of compact
bone are called tables in the flat skull bones while diploe is in the center. The diploe
of spongy bone is sandwiched between outer and inner tables of compact bone.
Other flat bones (sternum, scapula, ilium of hipbone) are also like flat skull bones.
They also have two layers of compact bone and spongy layer is sandwiched
between them.
Anatomy)
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Calvaria of the skull seen from

inside showing flat bones
Posterior surface of
sternum. Sternum is a flat
bone.
Sternum and ribs are flat

bones.
Anatomy)
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Continue
Anterior aspect
of
right scapula
shown. Scapula is a
flat and irregular
bone.

Anatomy)
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Irregular bones
These are irregular shaped bones. Most of

the facial bones (maxilla and zygomatic
bone) are irregular shaped. Other examples
are vertebrae, scapulae and hipbones. All of
them consist of cancellous bone covered with
compact bone of variable thickness.
Vertebrae are irregular bones but they are
symmetrical bones. We can classify
irregular bones into two subcategories.
1. Symmetrical bones Vertebrae are good

example
2. Asymmetrical bones Scapula, hipbone,
maxilla
Anatomy)
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Pneumatic bones
These bones are found in the

skull. The spongy part of the
bone is replaced by air- filled
cavities, which communicate
with the nose.
These air- filled cavities are

known as paranasal sinuses.
These are found in the frontal,
maxillary and sphenoid bones.

Anatomy)
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Continue
Sesamoid bones
These are so named because they resemble
sesame seeds.
They are usually present where tendons glide
over bones.
The largest sesamoid bone in human body is
patella (knee-cap).
It is found in the tendon of Quadriceps
femoris.
Anatomy)
34
Wormian or sutural bones
Small bones are found

along the sutures of the
skull where flat bones
come together.
These are called

wormian bones or
sutural bones.

Anatomy)
35
BONE MARKINGS
Normally bone appears smooth in three main areas.
1. Where it is covered by articular cartilage (i.e. cartilage on

the surface of bone taking part in forming a synovial joint).
2. Where it is subcutaneous (covered only by skin).
3. Where it gives fleshy attachment to muscle.
The bone is rough where it gives attachments to ligaments,

aponeurosis and tendons.
The bone has grooves for blood vessels.

The bones have foramina where arteries, veins and nerves
pass through these foramina.
Anatomy)
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Continue
The
various markings and features of bones are.

1. Line:
It is a linear elevation on the surface of bone.
Example.
Superior nuchal line and inferior nuchal line on
the back of skull.
Superior and inferior temporal lines of skull.
Intertrochanteric line in femur.
Anatomy)
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Continue.
Lateral view of skull

showing superior and
inferior temporal
lines.

Anatomy)
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2. Condyle:
It is a rounded articular
area.
Example.
Condyles of mandible
Condyles of femur
3. Epicondyle:
It is a raised area above
the condyle.
Example.
Epicondyles of
humerus.
Anatomy)
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Continue
4. Crest:
It is the ridge of a bone.

Example.
Iliac crest and
Pubic crest in hip bone.
Intertrochanteric crest in
femur.
Medial crest in fibula.

Anatomy)
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Continue
5. Groove:
It is an elongated depression in the bone.

Example.
Infraorbital groove in the orbital cavity.

Anatomy)
41
Continue..
6. Facet:
It is a flat area, usually
covered with cartilage,
where bones join each
other.
Example.
Costal facets on vertebral
bodies and transverse
processes to articulate
with ribs.
Superior aspect of first cervical

vertebra (atlas). Look at the
superior
STMU DPT 1st Semester
(General
articular
facets. They articulate
Anatomy)
42
with overlying skull.
Continue..
7. Fossa
It is a depressed area in the
bone.
Example.
Anterior cranial fossa,
middle cranial fossa and
posterior cranial fossa in skull.
Temporal fossa of skull.
Incisive fossa in palate.
Supraspinous fossa of the
scapula.
Iliac fossa in hip bone.
Interior of base of skull. Three main

fossae (anterior, middle and
posterior) are labeled.

Anatomy)
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Continue..
Inferior aspect of palate.
Lateral view of skull showing

temporal fossa.

Anatomy)
44
Continue
8. Foramen
It is a hole in the bone.

Example.
Foramen magnum in
occipital bone for
medulla oblongata.
Interior of base of skull. Five

foramina are shown.

Anatomy)
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Continue
9. Malleolus
It is a rounded process projecting from the end of a bone.
Example.
Medial malleolus of tibia.
Lateral malleolus of fibula.
10. Notch
It is an indentation at the edge of a bone.
Example.
Greater sciatic notch,
lesser sciatic notch and
acetabular notch in hip bone.
Trochlear notch and radial notch in ulna.
11. Protuberance
It is a projection of bone.
Example.
External occipital protuberance and internal occipital
protuberance in skull.
Anatomy)
46
Continue
Lateral view of skull.

External occipital
protuberance have been
marked and labeled.
Interior of base of skull.

Look at the internal
occipital protuberance.
Anatomy)
47
Continue..
12. Spine
It is a thorn like
process from the
bone.
Example.
Spine of scapula.
Dorsal aspect of right scapula

is shown. Look at the spine of
scapula and coracoid process.
Anatomy)
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Continue
13. Process
It is a spine like part
projecting from the bone.
Example Anterior cliniod
process and posterior cliniod
process in skull.
Styloid process on the base
of skull.
Coronoid process of
mandible.
Spinous process and
Coracoid process of scapula
Anatomy)
49
Continue
Lateral view of skull. The

processes have been marked
and labeled.
Right lateral view of typical

thoracic vertebra.

Anatomy)
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Continue
14. Trochanter
It is a large blunt raised area
of a bone.
Example.
Greater trochanter and
lesser trochanter of femur.
15. Tubercle
It is a small raised area on the
surface of bone.
Example.
Anterior and posterior
tubercles of atlas.
Greater tubercle and lesser
tubercle of humerus.
Superior aspect of first cervical

vertebra (atlas). Look at the
anterior and posterior
tubercles.

Anatomy)
51
Continue
16. Tuberosity
It
is large rounded elevation of a bone.
Example.
Greater
tuberosity and lesser tuberosity of
humerus.
Gluteal
Tibial
tuberosity on femur.
tuberosity on tibia.

Anatomy)
52
BLOOD SUPPLY OF BONE

Blood supply of long bones
The blood vessels supplying long bones come from 3 sources.

Nutrient artery
which enters the shaft through the nutrient foramen

Periosteal arteries
Branches of blood vessels supplying the joints.
These form an anatomosis called juxta-articular anastomosis

from which small twigs supply the epiphysis and the
metaphyseal region.
Anatomy)
53
Continue
Nutrient artery
Usually one (or two) artery enters the shaft obliquely

through an opening called nutrient foramen, which
leads into a nutrient canal.
In upper limbs, the direction is towards elbow joint,

whereas in lower limbs, it is away from the knee joint.
So remember this formula to the elbow I go, from the

knee I flee.
Anatomy)
54
Continue
Small branches from the periosteal arteries of the periosteum supply most
of the compact bone. Consequently, if the periosteum is removed, the bone
will die.
Metaphyseal and epiphysial arteries supply the ends of the bones.
These vessels arise mainly from the arteries that supply the joints.
The metaphyseal arteries come from muscular arteries whereas epiphyseal

arteries come from blood vessels around the joints.
These blood vessels enter the bone through many foramina.
The epiphyseal and metaphyseal arteries supply more blood then the
nutrient artery. They can supply the bone if the nutrient artery is blocked.
Anatomy)
55
In the children, there are no anastomoses between epiphyseal and

metaphyseal arteries due to the presence of epiphyseal plate between the
epiphysis and metaphysis.
If the nutrient artery gets blocked due to any reason, the metaphyseal bone
dies. This is called necrosis. The dead bone gets infected easily and this
condition is called osteomyelitis. This is why the commonest site of
osteomyelitis in children is the metaphysis.
Once the epiphyseal plate disappears with completion of bone growth, and
the epiphysis joins the metaphysis, blood vessels from the epiphysis and
metaphysis link up. Now there is no danger of bone death if nutrient artery
gets blocked.

Anatomy)
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Blood supply

Anatomy)
57
venous and lymphatic supply
Veins accompany arteries through the nutrient

foramina. Many large veins leave through
foramina near the articular ends of the bones.
Lymphatic vessels are abundant in the
periosteum.

Anatomy)
58
Nerve supply
Nerves accompany the blood vessels supplying
bones. The periosteum is richly supplied with sensory

nerves periosteal nerves that carry pain fibers.
The periosteum is especially sensitive to tearing or
tension, which explains the acute pain from bone
fractures.
Bone itself is relatively poorly supplied with sensory
endings. Within bones, vasomotor nerves cause
constriction or dilation of blood vessels, regulating
blood flow through the bone marrow.
Anatomy)
59
Cartilage
Cartilage is a resilient, semi rigid, avascular form of

connective tissue that forms parts of the skeleton where
more flexibility is necessary (e.g., the costal cartilages
that attach the ribs to the sternum).
The articulating surfaces of bones participating in a

Synovial joint are capped with articular cartilage,
which provides smooth, low-friction gliding surfaces
for free movement of the articulating bones.
Anatomy)
60
Continue
Cartilage is avascular and is, therefore,
nourished by diffusion.
The proportion of bone and cartilage in the
skeleton changes as the body grows; the
younger a person is, the greater the contribution
of cartilage.
The bones of a newborn infant are soft and
flexible because they are mostly composed of
cartilage.
Anatomy)
61
Continue
The fibrous connective tissue covering that surrounds

bone is periosteum; that surrounding cartilage elements,
excluding articular cartilage, is perichondrium.
The periosteum and perichondrium help nourish the

tissue, are capable of laying down more cartilage or
bone (particularly during fracture healing), and provide
an interface for attachment of tendons and ligaments.
Anatomy)
62
CLASSIFICATION
There are 3 types of cartilage; hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage.

Hyaline Cartilage
It is homogenous, bluish-white and translucent in appearance. It forms
temporary cartilage model, from which bones develop.
After birth it is found in following places
Articular cartilage of synovial joints
Plates of cartilage between separately ossifying parts of a bone
during growth. It is called epiphyseal cartilage.
Xiphoid process of sternum
Costal cartilages or cartilage of ribs
Nasal septum
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Anatomy)
63
Continue..
Fibrocartilage
It is like white fibrous tissue, but contains small islands of

chondrocytes and ground substance between collagen bundles.
It is found in
Intervertebral discs joining adjacent surfaces of vertebral bodies
Articular discs in wrist joints, sternoclavicular joints and
temporomandibular joints.
As a labrum or rim deepening the sockets of shoulder or hip joints
As semliunar cartilages (menisci) in knee joints
In the plate and disk which unites pubic bones at symphysis pubis.
Anatomy)
64
Continue..
Elastic cartilage
It
has bundles of yellow elastic fibers.
It
is found in
external ear
auditory tube
epiglottis
cuneiform cartilages of larynx.
Anatomy)
65
THANKS
Anatomy)
66

Lecture 2 - Osteology

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Anatomy of skeletal

Shifa Tameer-E Millat University

skeleton consists of bone and cartilage.

Younger persons have more cartilage in their

STMU DPT 1st Semester (General

STMU DPT 1st Semester (General

is specialized connective tissue.

Bones consist of an organic framework of fibrous

These lie in inorganic salts (mainly phosphate of

The fibrous tissue gives the bone resilience and

whereas the saltsSTMU

On naked eye examination of a section of dried bone, two

The difference between the two types depends on the

All bones have a superficial thin layer of compact bone

STMU DPT 1st Semester (General

Compact and cancellous bone

STMU DPT 1st Semester (General

STMU DPT 1st Semester (General

It forms the outer shell of bone.

It is thicker at the shaft of a long bone and thinner at the ends

The compact bone of the body or shaft is known as cortical

Compact bone provides strength for weight bearing.

Compact bone is surrounded by periosteum and lined by

It has a lot of connective tissue fibers are arranged in layers.

They form connective tissue sheets called lamellae. Between

Most of these lamellae are arranged as concentric cylinders around central

Each osteon is surrounded by a cementing line.

Such canals containing anastomosing vessels and are called anastomosing

The anastomosing canals communicating the central canals with medullary

Cancellous or spongy bone

It is a sponge network of bony trabeculae. It is always

The outer surfaces of bone are covered with a thick fibrous

It is responsible for nutrition of the underlying bone.

Periosteum is osteogenic. It gives rise to new bone. In a

Periosteum is absent at the articulating (joint) surface of bones.

STMU DPT 1st Semester (General

is single layered epithelium Lining the

internal surface (marrow / medullary cavity,

is also osteogenic and takes part in

formation of new bone.

STMU DPT 1st Semester (General

Bones are classified in different ways.

These bones develop through Intra membranous ossification.

II. CANCELLOUS BONE OR SPONGY BONE.

STMU DPT 1st Semester (General

4. According to shape & size

Each long bone has a shaft or body (also called

The epiphysis is separated from the diaphysis by cartilage (epiphyseal

The portion of the diaphysis close to the epiphyseal cartilage is known as

Superior aspect of right clavicle is shown. Clavicle is a

STMU DPT 1st Semester (General

STMU DPT 1st Semester (General

Right Hamate bone. Lateral

bone. medial aspect

Calvaria of the skull seen from

Sternum and ribs are flat

STMU DPT 1st Semester (General

These are irregular shaped bones. Most of

irregular bones into two subcategories.

1. Symmetrical bones Vertebrae are good

These bones are found in the

These air- filled cavities are

STMU DPT 1st Semester (General

Wormian or sutural bones