Types of Organisations of Civil

Society

Dr Agon Demjaha
2012

I. Associations
- According to Talcott Parsons modern societal communities
foster the proliferation of three distinct forms of social
organization: markets, bureaucracies, and associations.
- Associations, though not exclusive to modernity are one of its
central features. Associations in democratic societies differ
widely form their pre-modern equivalents. There is a clear
distinction between traditional involuntary associations such as
kin groups, castes, or communities and modern voluntary
associations. Historically, the shift from involuntary groupings
to the modern association has been made possible by the
evolution of the concept of freedom of association.
- This concept constitutes an integral part of the majority of the
constitutions of modern democracies, including the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights stipulating that (1) everyone has
the right to
freedom of peaceful assembly and association; (2)
Dr Agon Demjaha
2012be compelled to belong to an association (Art. 20).
no one may

Associations
- Associational life is by no means restricted to the
world of politics. Associations are ubiquitous in both
ancient and modern societies in a variety of extrapolitical forms; there are those working on behalf of the
business interest of their members, and others
facilitating the private life of their membership by
providing an institutional setting for a wide range of
leisure activities. The scope of research that the subject
matter of associations provides within the social
sciences thus encompasses most levels social
organisation that are of interest to sociologists today.
- David Sills classical definition an association is an
organized group of persons (1) that is formed in order
to further some common interest of its members; (2) in
which Dr
membership
is voluntary in the sense that is
Agon Demjaha
neither2012
mandatory nor acquired through birth; and (3)

Associations
- The relationship of associations to governments
is not determined a priori; for as lobbyists and
interest organizations associations are supporting
as well as criticizing government. As service
providers they are working on par with for-profit
business enterprises; and as membership
organizations they are embedded in social
milieus, providing avenues for civic engagement
and societal integration. Hence associations are
membership-based organizations that guided by
interests are independent from the state
apparatus (although they might cooperate with
government).
- Associations do not restrict their scope of
activities to just one level of operation. Instead,
Dr Agon Demjaha
many
2012 of them are complex organizations with

Associations
- Associations defined in terms of modernity typically
involve definitions grounded in an Anglo-Saxon, or at
least Western context typically focus on the voluntary
dimension of associations (which is one of the integral
features of the notion of free association). Providing
prime avenues for social participation, volunteering,
and discourse, associations constitute an important
part of the infrastructure of civil society.
- Habermas, Walzer, Dahrendorf, and other civil society
scholars
have
characterised
associations
as
intermediary organisational fields functioning as a
public sphere between state, economy, and private life.
Thus part from relating to and emerging from the
infrastructural base of society, associations in turn
shape the organisational structure of society by
Dr Agon Demjaha
defining
2012how members of society (social agents) come

Associations
- Max Weber took a different approach by
defining association as a domain of sovereign
rule. This definition focuses on the steering and
ruling capacities of associations. It is particularly
referred to in Continental Europe, where the
term association is primarily used for large,
encompassing organizations that often are
integrated
into
corporatist
governance
arrangements, and as such are working on par
or at least in close cooperation with
government. In contrast, associations that are
small and membership based organizations
operating first and foremost at the local level
are generally referred to as voluntary
organizations and more specifically as clubs
thatDrare
supposed to generate high degrees of
Agon Demjaha
2012

Associations
- The term association in the categorisation of
social organisations in contemporary research is
used in the sense that excludes primary groups
and commercial companies but admits an
exceptionally wide area of institutions and
organizations that pervading every functional
sector of society ranges from business related
activities, trade, and labor unions, clubs,
churches, and congregations, civic service
associations, third sector organizations, social
welfare
councils,
self-help
groups,
secret
societies, professional societies, and other
collectivist organizations.
- A further distinction is that between associations
that foster the self-interest of their members and
those working either on behalf of a third party (i.e.,

Associations
Gordon and Babchuk differentiate between
associations either working on behalf of their
members (expressive association) or fostering the
common interest (instrumental association). By
introducing the variables accessibility- and
status-conferring capacity of the association,
Gordon and Babchuk drew the attention to the
prestige factor of associational membership. Their
work shows that associations significantly
contribute to the stratification of modern
societies.

Dr Agon Demjaha
2012

Associations
There are also structural analyses of associations.
The general distinction is that between centralized
and federalized organizations. The centralized
type of association is modeled in accordance
with a corporate or hierarchical governance
structure (Anheier and Themudo, 2002: 316ff.). A
characteristic feature of this model is a topdown
approach of decision making that leaves little
room to maneuver for departments or chapters
and for associated membership organizations. The
Catholic Church or Greenpeace are organized
according to the corporate model. Associations
modeled according to the federation type
constitute loosely coupled systems, which give
way to a larger degree of membership
participation (individual or corporate) and hence
Dr Agon Demjaha
democratic
decision
making
within
the
2012

II. Nongovernmental Organisations

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are
now recognized as key third sector actors on the
landscapes of development, human rights,
humanitarian action, environment, and many
other areas of public action. NGOs have existed
in various forms for centuries, but they rose to
high prominence in international development
and increased their numbers dramatically in the
1980s and 1990s. It is difficult to know precisely
how many NGOs there are, because few
comprehensive or reliable statistics are kept.
Some estimates put the figure at a million
organizations, if both formal and informal
organizations are included, while the number of
registered NGOs receiving international aid is
probably
closer to a few hundred thousand.
Dr Agon Demjaha
2012

Nongovernmental Organisations
The world of NGOs contains a bewildering variety of
labels. While the term NGO is widely used, there
are also many other over-lapping terms used such as
nonprofit,
voluntary,
and
civil
society
organizations. In many cases, the use of different
terms does not reflect descriptive or analytical rigour,
but is instead a consequence of the different cultures
and histories in which thinking about NGOs has
emerged. For example, nonprofit organization is
frequently used in the USA, where the market is
dominant, and where citizen organizations are
rewarded with fiscal benefits if they show that they
are not commercial, profit-making entities and work
for the public good. In the UK, voluntary
organization or charity is commonly used,
following a long tradition of volunteering and
voluntary work that has been informed by Christian
values and the development of charity law. But

Nongovernmental Organisations
The work undertaken by NGOs is wide-ranging;
their roles can be divided into three main
components: implementer, catalyst, and partner.
The implementer role is concerned with the
mobilization of resources to provide goods and
services to people who need them. This role has
increased as NGOs have been increasingly
contracted by governments and donors with
governance reform and privatization policies to
carry out specific tasks in return for payment; it
has also become more prominent as NGOs are
increasingly
responding
to
man-made
emergencies
or
natural
disasters
with
humanitarian assistance. The catalyst role can be
defined as an NGOs ability to inspire, facilitate or
contribute to improved thinking and action to
Dr Agon Demjaha
promote
social transformation. This effort may be
2012

Nongovernmental Organisations

NGOs defy generalisation. They range from small

informal groups to large formal agencies. As a result,
NGO as an analytical category remains complex and
unclear. For example, despite the fact that NGOs are
neither run by government, nor driven by the profit
motive, there are nevertheless some NGOs that
receive high levels of government funding, and others
that seek to generate profits to plough back into their
work. In relation to structure, NGOs may be large or
small, formal or informal, bureaucratic or flexible. In
terms of funding, many are externally-funded, while
others depend on locally mobilized resources. While
there are many NGOs which receive funds from and
form a part of the development industry (which
consists of the world of bilateral and multilateral aid
donors, the United Nations system and the Bretton
Woods institutions), there are also NGOs which choose
to work outside the world of aid as far as possible. One
basic distinction common in the literature is that

Nongovernmental Organisations

A key distinction is between membership forms of

NGO, such as community-based organizations or
peoples organizations, and intermediary forms of
NGO that work from outside with communities,
sometimes
termed
grassroots
support
organizations (GSOs). There are also numerous
examples of bogus NGOs, such as those
established as fronts by government (GONGOs
government-organized NGOs) or briefcase
NGOs set up by individuals for purely personal
gain. Some NGOs are well-resourced and affluent,
while others lead a fragile hand to mouth
existence, struggling to survive from 1 year to the
next. There are NGOs with highly professionalized
staff, while others rely heavily on volunteers and
supporters. NGOs are driven by a range of
motivations and values. There are both secular

Nongovernmental Organisations

- Some NGOs aim to meet only peoples

immediate needs, while others take a longer-term
view and seek to develop alternative ideas and
approaches to problems. Morris-Suzuki notes that
NGOs may pursue change, but they can equally
work to maintain existing social and political
systems. For example, for radicals who seek to
explore alternative visions of development and
change, NGOs may be seen as progressive
vehicles for change or conservative market-based
solutions to policy problems.
- A usefully concise definition of NGOs by Vakil
(who draws on elements of the structuraloperational definition set out above), states that
NGOs are self-governing, private, not-for-profit
organizations that are geared to improving the
quality of life for disadvantaged people. One can

III. Foundations
- The cultural phenomenon of foundations can
be traced back in human history as far as to
pre-societal primate communities. With that
said, neither the act of giving nor an endeavour
to be remembered necessarily leads to a
foundation nor does a foundation necessarily
include such reasonings, however these seem
to be the pervasive instincts of most
foundations and are thus key for their
understanding.
- In modern organizational theory, foundations
are classified as one of essentially two basic
forms within civil society. While the majority of
civil society organizations are associational in
that members constitute the core structure
(universitas
Dr Agon Demjaha personarum), a minority is defined
2012

Foundations
- The cultural phenomenon of foundations can
be traced back in human history as far as to
pre-societal primate communities. With that
said, neither the act of giving nor an endeavour
to be remembered necessarily leads to a
foundation nor does a foundation necessarily
include such reasonings, however these seem
to be the pervasive instincts of most
foundations and are thus key for their
understanding.
- In modern organizational theory, foundations
are classified as one of essentially two basic
forms within civil society. While the majority of
civil society organizations are associational in
that members constitute the core structure
(universitas
Dr Agon Demjaha personarum), a minority is defined
2012

Foundations

- Societal theory on occasion has had severe

doubts as to whether the rule of the dead over
the living as implied by the binding will of the
founder is compatible with democracy and the
rule of law (e.g., Kant), and governments have
feared the alternative source of power vested in
an institution equipped with considerable
assets. Legislative action (viz. the US Tax
Reform Act 1969) has aimed at curbing the
power of foundations.
- Foundations may pursue their goals by four
distinct, albeit frequently overlapping functions:
(a) Ownership (e.g., preserving a church
building as a church in perpetuity)
(b) Operational (managing an institution or
operating projects)
(c) Grant-making (to a prescribed beneficiary or

Foundations
The matter is complicated by the fact that in most
languages, both the act of giving, if intended as a
longterm investment, on one hand, and the institution
as such, on the other hand, are termed a foundation
(fondation/ fondazione/Stiftung, etc.), thus blurring the
issue whether the term applies to a process or an
institution. This is clearer when applying the word Trust,
traditionally used in English law in describing the legal
status. The concept of foundations shares some
commonalities with the concept of philanthropy. But
they are not synonyms, foundations being a wider
organizational form, while philanthropy includes a wider
view of giving, most especially giving of time, which
foundations do not.

In defining a foundation, three distinct concepts of

human planning need to be analyzed:

Foundations
- Despite the known existence of other models in the
literature, the model of the foundation created by the
will of a wealthy, philanthropically minded individual
became the dominating definition in the public arena.
- In modern civil society, given the notion developed
over the past 20 years, foundations have acquired a
position as one expression of self-determined
engagement for public benefit. not all foundations
are by this definition part of civil society, belonging
instead to the government or private sphere. At the
beginning of the 21st century, foundations are more
popular with the citizenry and their political leaders
worldwide than they have been for a long while.

IV. Cooperatives
- Cooperatives have evolved significantly over
the last 200 years. Despite becoming
increasingly important to economies of a
plethora
of
levels
of
socioeconomic
development, they remain peripheral to
contemporary scholarly analyses. This is largely
due to the perception of cooperatives as
inefficient
and
relatively
ineffective
organizational types whose presence is typically
transient and of some importance in times of
crises
and
to
marginal
socioeconomic
participants.
- In general, a cooperative comprises a
voluntary network of individuals who own or
control a business that distributes benefits on
the Drbasis
of use or ownership where ownership
Agon Demjaha
2012

Cooperatives
There are various types of cooperatives, most
notably:

Workers cooperative

Consumer cooperative

Credit union

Supply and purchasing cooperative

Marketing cooperative

New generation cooperative

Multi-stakeholder cooperative
Dr Agon Demjaha

2012

V. Mutual Organisations/Mutual Societies

- According to a very broad definition of the
European
Commission
in
2003,
mutual
organizations/societies are voluntary groups of
persons (natural or legal) whose purpose is
primarily to meet the needs of their members
rather than achieve a return on investment.
This broad definition includes self-help groups,
friendly
societies,
cooperatives,
mutual
insurance companies, mutual benefit societies,
credit unions, building societies, savings and
loans
associations,
micro-credit,
burial
associations, Freemasons, etc. This definition
presumes the following principles about the
structure of mutual organisations/societies:
Absence of shares
Free
membership
Dr Agon Demjaha
2012
Solidarity
among members

Mutual Organisations/Mutual Societies

The core organizations examined here will be
mutual insurance companies and mutual benefit
societies. In that sense, mutual societies are
insurance companies run by their members for
protecting them against property, personal, and
social risks on a voluntary and non-compulsory
basis. Mutual insurance companies deal with
property and life risks, while mutual benefit
societies protect their members against social
risks such as illness, disability, and old age
mainly.
- As operating on the same markets as
corporations, mutual societies are facing a
global competition challenging their historical
values. As forerunners or complements to the
social
schemes, they have to find
Dr Agonsecurity
Demjaha
2012

Mutual Organisations/Mutual Societies

Mutual societies are prototypes of social
enterprises, an emerging form of enterprise. In
postindustrial societies, personal services,
difficult to standardize, offering a wide range of
quality and asymmetric information are able to
be provided by mutual as well as nonprofit
organizations. A democratic management fits
the well-educated youth who dislikes the
authoritarianism
of
standard
firms
and
advocates the social responsibility of enterprise.
A mutual form fits also high-technology services
at least at their very beginning, when partners
are supposed equal: the wiki movement for
example shows it. A mutual could also run
pension funds with a better financial solidity and
a more ethical choice of investments than for-

VI. Clubs and Clans

- Clubs and clans are common forms of
associational life globally and are significant
components of civil society but in academic and
popular usage, both concepts suffer from a lack
of conceptual clarity in their definition and
measurement. Clubs and clans each represent a
distinct form of collective action, varying in their
structure, membership attributes, and goals.
These different features may affect the impact
of each form of association on civic engagement
and civil society.
- The term clan, is also used in different ways
by different disciplines, but these definitions
share a common core. Clans are networks of
individuals who typically know each other
personally
and transact face-to-face.
Dr Agon Demjaha
2012

Clubs and Clans

Kinship-based clans are closed, nonvoluntary
systems in which individuals are linked by ties based
on ascriptive characteristics (such as ethnicity,
religion, or caste) that are relatively immutable, at
least in the short-run. By this definition, clans are
not voluntary organizations, since an individual
cannot choose which clan to join. As Collins points
out, a clan is both an organization and an identity.
Alexis de Tocqueville emphasized how face to- face
interactions in civic associations undergirded
American democracy in the mid-nineteenth century.
Tocqueville argued that participation pulled people
away from the closed, binding ties of family and
kinship and encouraged them to develop habits of
association and to work for the common good. Since
then a number of neo-Tocquevillians have
proposed a number of pathways through which
Dr Agon Demjaha
associational
life contributes to civil society and
2012

Clubs and Clans

- Finally, association goals matter because
associational life has a dark side and social
capital can easily be unsocial in nature.
Members of the Aryan Brotherhood or the Ku
Klux Klan all attend meetings, elect officers, and
make decisions democratically within the group,
but without the external pursuit of democratic
ends. Thus associational life can act to defend
the status quo against demands for greater civic
engagement or to undermine civil society
through the pursuit of narrow group goals.
- Clubs and clans are forms of association in
constant flux. Since the mid-nineteenth century,
voluntary clubs in the United States have
reinvented themselves numerous times and
proliferated
Dr Agon Demjahain many countries around the world.
2012