Race and IQ

Historical misuses and contemporary issues

Race and IQ
The history of IQ testing
A brief introduction to IQ tests
Race-group differences

A summary of the issue

Possible explanations

Test bias
Genetic differences
Environmental differences

A long (and mostly sordid) history

Craniometry (1860)
Pierre Brocca

Believed brain size=intelligence

Interesting methods

Concluded:
The brain is larger in mature adults than in
the elderly, in men than women,in superior
races than in inferior races
(Brocca quoted by Gould, 1978, p. 44)

Alfred Binet
Lawyer, self taught in psychology,

studied under Charcot (who also

influenced Freud)
Asked by French government to create

a test to identify students who would

benefit from remedial education
Along with Theodore Simon, created

first widely-used standardized test of

intelligence, the Simon-Binet Scale

The birth of the IQ test

France legislates mandatory primary education in 1882

Government requests test to identify students who need special ed.

Alfred Binet publishes (with Theodore Simon) the first widely-used

standardized IQ test (with 30 subtests) the Simon-Binet Scale (1905)

Digit repetition
Sentence completion
Point to an object in a picture
Conscious recognition of resemblances
How are a fly, an ant, a butterfly, a flea alike?
In what way are a newspaper, a label, a picture alike?
Recognition of food
Moral judgment

Revised scale published in 1908

14 tests retained, 9 dropped, 7 modified, 33 added

If 75-90% of children in age group pass, it was assigned that age level
Rejected notion of IQ

Henry Goddard
Translated Simon-Binet into English (1908)
Distributed 22,000 copies of translated test

across the U.S.

Set up first laboratory to study mental retardation in New Jersey:

Vineland Training School for Feebleminded Girls & Boys

Strong advocate of eugenics
1912 book The Kallikak Family: A Study in the Heredity of
Feeble-mindedness
original article
summary and analysis

Goddard (continued)
Wanted to prevent the breeding of feebleminded people

hesitated to promote compulsory sterilization, even though

convinced it would solve problem
suggested "colonies" where the feeble-minded could be
segregated

Established an intelligence testing program on Ellis Island in 1913

rejects 80% of pre-identified immigrants as "feeble-minded"

83% of all Jews

80% of the Hungarians

79% of the Italians

87% of the Russians.

resulted in an exponential increase in deportations

Goddard (continued)
The Immigration Restriction Act (1924-1965)

Strongly influenced by American eugenics' efforts

restricted numbers of immigrants from undesirable racial
groups (including Jews).
Upon signing, President Coolidge commented, "America
must remain American."

Publicized race-group differences on Army IQ tests and

claimed Americans were unfit for Democracy

One of many scientists (including Galton and Terman)
that inspired scientific racism movement in Europe &
U.S.

Robert Yerkes
Founded first non-

human primate
research lab
Chaired committee that

created the Army Alpha

and Beta intelligence
tests used in U.S.
during World War I

David Wechsler
Born in Rumania, emigrated to

U.S. at age 6
Worked as a psychological

examiner in army during WWI

Obtained Ph.D. in 1925
Chief psychologist at Bellevue Psychiatric

Hospital from 1932-1967

Developed several intelligence tests, including

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).

WAIS Popularity
WAIS

Defining Intelligence
Global capacity to act purposefully, to think

rationally, and to deal effectively with the

environment (David Wechsler)
1987 survey of 1020 experts on intelligence
Abstract reasoning (99.3%)
Problem-solving ability (97.7%)
Capacity to acquire knowledge (96.0%)
Memory (80.5%)
Adaptation to environment (77.2%)

Intelligence vs other types of tests

Aptitude tests measure a narrow range of ability
Achievement tests measure what you know or

what you learned/achieved

Question: What is the SAT?
Answer: A multiple aptitude test (related to intelligence)

SAT to IQ conversion table

SAT
V+M

IQ
15 SD

%ile

SAT
V+M

IQ
15 SD

%ile

1600

152.18

99.975

1010

109.46

73.587

1590

151.45

99.970

1000

108.74

71.985

1580

150.73

99.964

990

108.01

70.338

1570

150.00

99.957

980

107.29

68.647

1560

149.28

99.949

970

106.56

66.916

1550

148.56

99.940

960

105.84

65.149

1540

147.83

99.929

950

105.12

63.347

1530

147.11

99.916

940

104.39

61.516

1520

146.38

99.901

930

103.67

59.659

1510

145.66

99.883

920

102.94

57.780

1500

144.94

99.863

910

102.22

55.883

1490

144.21

99.840

900

101.50

53.972

1480

143.49

99.813

890

100.77

52.052

1470

142.76

99.782

880

100.05

50.128

Relationship between SAT and IQ

1. For SAT scores before 1996

IQ = (0.126 x SAT combined) + (-.4.71E - 5 x SAT combined x

SAT combined) + 40.063 (Detterman and Frey, Case Western
Reserve Univ.)
2. For SAT scores from 1996 -2004

IQ =(0.095 X SAT Math) + (0.003 X SAT Verbal) + 50.241 Scores

for SAT were "re-centered" in 1996, raising the average SAT back
to 500 (Detterman and Frey, Case Western Reserve Univ.)
SAT to IQ conversion is an inexact science, particularly for SAT's

under 900. The chart's creator writes: "The lowest point of

reference was the theoretical average IQ of high school students
being 110 and the current average SAT I V+M (verbal + math)
score being 1019. Everything below that is extrapolation. Also
note that the decimal places give the impression that the
numbers are more precise than they really are."

WAIS Verbal Subtests

WAIS Performance
Subtests
Picture Completion
Picture Arrangement
Block Design
Object Assembly
Digit-Symbol Substitution

Interpreting IQ scores

Interpreting IQ scores (normal curve)

The Flynn Effect (1995 data)

IQ scores tend to rise 3 points every 10 years

Does IQ matter?
How can we tell?
Data indicate
IQ and school performance (GPA)
r=.50 for elementary and high school students
r=.40 for college students

IQ and years of education (r=.50, see next slide)

IQ and occupational attainment (r=.50)

Likely due to very high correlation (r= mid .60s)
between education and occupation

IQ and job performance (rs= .27 to .47)

IQ and Education

IQ and education/occupation (same data)

IQ tests strengths and weaknesses

The IQ racial gap

Possible explanations for the gap

The tests are bad
Genetic differences
Environmental differences

Are the tests (racially) biased?

Argument 1: IQ tests yield race-group differences, hence

the tests are biased

Argument 2: The test item content is culturally biased
Example: What
should you do when
a child smaller than
you begins to fight
with you?
(comprehension)

Chitling Intelligence Test (Dove, 1971)

A "handkerchief head" is:
(a) a cool cat
(b) a porter
(c) an Uncle Tom
(d) a hoddi
(e) a preacher
Many people say that "Juneteenth" (June 19) should be made a legal
holiday because this was the day when:
(a) the slaves were freed in the USA
(b) the slaves were freed in Texas
(c) the slaves were freed in Jamaica
(d) the slaves were freed in California
(e) Martin Luther King was born
(f) Booker T. Washington died.

CB

Black Intelligence Test of Cultural

Homogeneity
100-item multiple-choice test, based on items drawn from Black

culture

Sample Questions

1. Alley Apple is
a) brick
b) piece of fruit
c) dog
d) horse

2. CPT means a standard of

a) time
b) tune
c) tale
d) twist

3. Deuce-and-a-quarter is
a) money
b) a car
c) a house
d) dice

A, A, B

Are the culture-specific tests valid?

Useful for building self-esteem
But low predictive validity

Low correlation between Black IQ Test and

achievement (Language =. 33, Math=.18)
Students in MR classes did no better on the
Black IQ Test than on the WISC

Cultural bias data

Are the tests (racially) biased?

Argument 3:

The tests have

different construct
validity for Blacks
and Whites

Are the tests (racially) biased?

Argument 4:

The tests have

different/inadequate
predictive validity for
Blacks and Whites

B.I.T.C.H. correlations:
Language =. 33
Math=.18

IQ and Education (1990)

Are the tests (racially) biased?

Argument 5:

The tests have language bias because they are in

standard English and many Blacks grow up speaking
a Black dialect

Are the tests (racially) biased?

Argument 6:

The tests are neutral but the examiners are biased

Evidence:
25 of 29 studies published prior to 1995 found no
significant relationship between the race of the
examiner and Black childrens scores

Are the tests (racially) biased?

Argument 7:

The tests are neutral but the norms are inappropriate

In other words: Separate (rather than national) norms
should be used to eliminate racial bias [recent example]
Logical outcome (if taken to logical conclusion):
1. Race group differences would be eliminated, but
2. Scores would have little relevance to racial justice, and
3. Scores would not allow tracking of group

outcomes/disparities

Possible explanations for the gap

The tests are bad (no empirical support for current

racial bias!)
Genetic differences
Environmental differences

The heritability of IQ

Historical and current understanding

Heritability debate has a long, controversial history

In the 1960's Arthur Jensen fueled debate with heritability estimate

of .8

The Bell Curve (1994) by Herrnstein and Murray

Contemporary consensus

Evidence does exist for high heritability, but

Environmental factors are also important

Studies show heritability = .4 to .8 (best estimate probably .7)

High heritability does not discount environmental influence. Consider

vocabulary

So are psychological factors (e.g., Carol Dwecks work)

The genetic position

A. Assumptions
1. IQ is polygenetic (Gottesmans model postulates 5 genes)
2. IQ is normally distributed
3. Very low IQ is produced by genetic abnormalities
B. Evidence
1. Average IQ correlation of identical twins is .86
2. Identical twins, fraternal twins, siblings, and parent-child IQ correlations
all higher than that of unrelated persons
3. Parent-child correlations are higher for biological vs adopted parents
4. When siblings are reared together, IQ correlations are higher for biological
siblings than for adopted siblings
5. The high correlation in #1 resists change over time
6. Many genetic abnormalities have been proven to cause lower IQ
a. Turners syndrome
b. Fragile X syndrome
c. PKU

The environmentalist position

A. Assumptions
1. Genetics alone cannot account for the normal range of IQ
2. IQ is not necessarily normally distributed (tests are designed to yield a
normal distribution)
B. Evidence
1. IQ corrs of identical and fraternal twins raised together are higher than
for those raised apart.
2. Fraternal twins IQ correlations are higher than siblingss IQ correlations
3. Assortative mating
4. Adoptive parent-child correlations are higher than unrelated adults and
children
5. Studies of environmental influences on IQ show that
a. Low birth weight decreases IQ
b. Malnutrition decreases IQ
c. Family background affects IQ
d. Pressure to achieve increases IQ
e. Birth order and family size affect IQ
f. Amount and quality of schooling affects IQ

But is the racial gap genetic?

Hard to determine due
to environmental
differences.

Is the racial gap genetic?

Many controversial studies

Between-group vs within-group variation

What we know about IQ heritability

There is strong evidence of within-group heritability
Laws of heredity produce regression to the mean
There is a certain environment by gene interaction

What we know about IQ heritability

(cont.)
1987 survey of 1020 intelligence experts
The difference is entirely due to environmental variation: 15%.
The difference is entirely due to genetic variation: 1%
The difference is a product of genetic and environmental variation: 45%.
The data are insufficient to support any reasonable opinion: 24%.
No response (or not qualified): 14%.
Robert Sternberg: "science isn't done by majority rule"
APA 1997 task force: It is sometimes suggested that the

Black/White differential in psychometric intelligence is partly due to

genetic differences. There is not much direct evidence on this point,
but what little there is fails to support the genetic hypothesis.
Charles Murray: Actually, there is no direct evidence at all, just a

wide variety of indirect evidence, almost all of which the task force
chose to ignore.

Possible explanations for the gap

The tests are bad (no empirical support)
Genetic differences (data mixed, no consensus)
Environmental differences

Environmental Factors
Social class and home environment matter
Attribution of intelligence matters (Dweck)
Motivation and test taking stills matters
Stereotype threat matters
Interventions matter

Scores have narrowed in past 30 years

Social Class matters

Bell curve, 1994

Family Factors and IQ

R2=.0576

Home environments

Environmental Factors
Social class and home environment matter
Attribution of intelligence matters (Dweck)
Motivation and test taking stills matters
Stereotype threat matters
Interventions matter

Stereotype threat matters

Stereotype threat literature

Steele and Aronson (1995)

Ryan and Anthony (2006)

Interventions matter
Recent NY
Times article:
Who gets to
graduate?

The Culture of Poverty (Kutner, 1975)

Blaming the victim (Ryan, 1976)

Four Steps to Blaming the Victim
1. Identify a social problem
2. Study those affected by the problem to discover how

they are different from those who are not affected by

the problem.

3. Define the difference as the cause of the problem itself

4. Create a humanitarian action (social service) program

to correct the problem cause (from #3)

Real-world example:

http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/03/20050307-5.html

Blaming the (IQ) victim

1. Social problem:
African American children underperforming
(relative to Whites) on IQ tests
2. Study those affected by the problem to discover
how they are different from those who are not
affected by the problem
1.
2.
3.
4.

Black families more likely to be less educated

Black families more likely to have poor study spaces
Black children more likely to be unmotivated to do well on tests
Black children less likely to associate education with success

Blaming the (IQ) victim, continued

3. Define the difference as the cause of the
problem itself
Black children under-perform on IQ tests
because Black families dont value education

4. Create a humanitarian action (social service)

program to correct the problem cause
?