INTRODUCTION TO

SEMICONDUCTORS MATERIAL
Chapter 1

Objectives
Discuss basic structures of atoms
Discuss properties of insulators, conductors, and
semiconductors
Discuss covalent bonding
Describe the conductions in semiconductor
Discuss N-type and P-type semiconductor
Discuss the diode
Discuss the bias of a diode
EKT 102: Basic Electronic Engineering

Lectures Content
1.1

Atomic structure

1.2

Semiconductor, conductors and insulators

1.3

Covalent bonding

1.4

Conduction in semiconductors

1.5

N-type and P-type semiconductors

1.6

Diode

1.7

Biasing the diode

1.8

Voltage-current characteristic of a diode

1.9

Diode models

1.10 Testing a diode

EKT 102: Basic Electronic Engineering

1.1 Atomic Structure

Basic
structure

Ionizati
on

ATO
M

Valence
electro
n
EKT 102: Basic Electronic Engineering

Atomic
number

Electron
shells

1.1 Atomic Structure (cont.)

The Atom
1. Atom is the smallest particle of
an element that retains the
characteristics of that element.
2. An atom consists of the protons
and
neutrons that make up the
nucleus
(core) at the center and
electrons that
orbit about the nucleus.
The nucleus carries almost
the total
mass of the atom.
EKT 102: Basic Electronic
Engineering

Figure 1:
The Bohr model of an
atom

1.1 Atomic Structure (cont.)

Figure 2:

Carry
negative
charge

Neutral
(carry no
charge)

Carry
positive
charge
EKT 102: Basic Electronic
Engineering

1.1 Atomic Structure (cont.)

Num. of protons = Num. of
electrons

Electrically balanced
(neutral) atom

Nucleu
s

Nucleu
s

++

(b)
Helium

(a)
Hydrogen

+Proton

Electron

Figure 3: Bohr model of hydrogen and helium

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Engineering

Neutron

1.1 Atomic Structure (cont.)

1. Element in
periodic table
are arranged
according to
atomic
number.

Figure 4: The periodic table of the elements

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Engineering

2. Atomic
number
equals
number of
protons in
nucleus which
is the same as
the number of
electron in an
electrically
balanced
atom .

1.1 Atomic Structure (cont.)

Electrons and Shells
1. Electrons near the nucleus
have less energy than those
in more distant orbits.
2. Each distance (orbit) from the
nucleus corresponds to a
certain energy level.
3. In an atom, the orbits are
grouped into energy levels
= shells.
4. A given atom has a fixed
EKT 102: Basic Electronic

number of shells and

each
Engineering

Figure 5: Bohr model of the silicon

atom

1.1 Atomic Structure (cont.)

Valence Electron

Shells or orbital
paths

1. Valence shell is the

outermost shell in an
atom that determines the
conductivity of an atom.
2. The electrons in valence
shell
are called valence
electrons.
3. Valence electrons have
higher energy and are
less tightly
bound to
the atom.

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Engineering

Shell
2
Shell
1

Shell
4
Shell
3

29 p

+n
29
-

Valence
shell

Valence electro
Figure 6: Bohr model of copper atom

1.1 Atomic Structure (cont.)

The Maximum Number of Electrons in Each Shell

1. The maximum number of electrons (Ne) in each shell is

calculated using formula below:

N e 2n 2

where = number of shell.

2. Example for the copper atom (Cu) shell :

Atomic number = 29 = 29
electrons
1st shell :

2nd shell :
3rd shell :
4th shell :

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Engineering

1.1 Atomic Structure (cont.)

Ionization
1.

When atom absorb energy (e.g heat source) the energies of the electron
are raised.

2.

Valence electron obtain more energy and more loosely bound to the
atom compared to the inner electron.

3.

If a valence electron acquires sufficient energy escape from the outer

shell and the process of losing valence electron called ionization.

4.

The resulting positively charged atom is called a positive ion.

5.

The escape electron is called free electron.

6.

On the other hand, the atom that has acquired the extra electron is
called a negative ion.

7.

This can occur in certain atoms when a free electron collides with the
atom and is captured
- (e.g ).
Nucleus

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Engineering

Nucleus

Figure 6: Ionization of hydrogen atom

(H)

1.2 Semiconductors, conductors and insulators

In terms of
electrical
properties

Material

Insulators

Semiconduc
tors

Conductors

All materials are made up of atoms that contribute

to its ability to conduct electrical current

EKT 102: Basic Electronic

Engineering

1.2 Semiconductors, conductors and insulators

1. An atom can be represented by the valence shell and a

core.
2. A core consists of all the inner shells and the nucleus.
Valence shell
=
-4e
Inner-shell
=

+6 for nucleus, -2 for

the two inner-shell
electrons
(net charge +4)

-2e

Nucleus:
6 protons
6 neutrons

Figure 7: Diagram of a
carbon
atom
EKT
102: Basic
Electronic
Engineering

1.2 Semiconductors, conductors and insulators (cont.)

Insulators
Material does not conduct electrical current (e.g rubber,
plastic, glass).
Valence electron are tightly bound to the atom very
few free electron.
Conductors
Material that easily conducts electrical current.
The best conductors are single-element material (e.g copper,
silver, gold, aluminum).
Only one valence electron very loosely bound to the
atom - free electron.
Semiconductors
Material between conductors and insulators in its
102: Basic Electronic
ability to conduct EKT
electric
current.
Engineering

1.2 Semiconductors, conductors and insulators (cont.)

Band
Gap

Figure 8:
Energy
diagram for
three types of
materials

The amount
of energy
that a
valence
electron
must have
to jump from
the valence
band to
conduction
band.

Band gap - the difference between the energy levels of any

two orbital shells.
Band - another name for an orbital shell (valence shell =
valence band).
EKT 102: Basic Electronic
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1.2 Semiconductors, conductors and insulators (cont.)

Band Gap
(cont.)

Energy

Conduction band
Energy gap

E4 = 1.8eV
E3 =
0.7eV
E2
E1

E = energy
level

Valence band

Figure 10: Energy band diagram for an unexcited (no external energy) atom in a pure
(intrinsic) Si crystal.
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1.2 Semiconductors, conductors and insulators (cont.)

Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a
Conductor Atom

1.

A valence electron in Si atom feels an

14 protons 10
electrons

attractive force of +4 compared to Cu

atom which feels an attractive force of
+1.
2.

Force holding valence electrons to the

atom in

3.

Si > in Cu.

The distance from its nucleus of Cus

valence electron (in 4th shell) > Sis
valence electron

4.

29 protons 28
electrons

(in 3rd shell).

The valence electron in Cu has more

energy than the valence electron in Si.

5.

Easier for valence electrons in Cu to

EKT 102: Basic Electronic

acquire enough additionalEngineering

energy to

Figure 11: Bohr diagrams

of the silicon and copper
atoms.