INTELLIGENTDESIGN:

ASCIENTIFICANDRELIGIOUS
CRITIQUE
I.TheIntelligentDesignMovement
II.EvolutionaryBiology
III.EvolutionaryTheism

I.TheIntelligentDesignMovement
1925.ScopestrialinTennesseeupheldantievolutionlaw
defendedbybiblicalliteralists.
1987.U.S.SupremeCourtruledthatcreationscience
(claimsofscientificevidenceforarecentspecialcreation)
isnotacceptablesciencebutareligiousbelief,violating
separationofchurchandstate(FirstAmendment).
2005.U.S.DistrictCourt:parentsinDover,PA,challenge
localschoolboardrequirementthatstudentsheara
statementaboutintelligentdesignalongwiththeteachingof
evolution.

Nov.2005.Dovercitizensreplaceschoolboardmembers
sympathetictoIntelligentDesignwithopponentsofID.
Dec.2005.FederaldistrictjudgeinHarrisburgrulesthat
IDisnotascientifictheorybutareligiousbelief.
Severalschoolboardmembershadacknowledgedtheir
religiousmotivationsbeforethehearingshadstarted.
TheDovercasehasbeensettledbutIDremainsanissue
inKansasandmanyotherstates,eitherinlocalschool
boardsorstateboardsthatseteducationalstandards.

IDClaims
ProponentsofIDdifferfrombothbiblicalliteralismand
creationsciencewhichwerethesubjectsofpreviouscourt
rulings.
TheymakenoreferencetotheBibleandtheyacceptalong
historyoflifeonearth.
Buttheyinsistthatsomeorganicstructuresaresocomplex
thattheycouldnothaveevolvedbygradualstages.
Systematiccoordinationofmanyparts(e.g.oftheeye)
mustbetheproductofsupernaturalinterventionbyan
IntelligentDesigner.

Theoverwhelmingmajorityofbiologistsrejectthese
claims.
Forexample,thehumaneyecouldhaveevolvedby
gradualstepsfromsimplervisualsystemslikethosein
someotherspeciestoday.

IDdoesnotleadtohypothesesthatcanbetested
experimentally,akeyfeatureofscience.
IDdoesnotleadtoresearchpapersinpeerreviewed
scientificjournals.Thiscannotbeattributedsimplytothe
biasesofthedominantscientificelitethatcontrols
journals.

IntelligentDesign
Sincenaturalselectioncanonlychoosesystemsthat
arealreadyworking,thenifabiologicalsystemcannot
beproducedgraduallyitwouldhavetoariseasan
integratedunit,inonefellswoop,fornaturalselection
tohaveanythingtoacton.
MichaelBehe,DarwinsBlackBox,p.39

 Amousetrapwouldnotworkifonepart
weremissing.
Similarly,irreduciblycomplexsystems
onlyworkasaunit.
Anintelligentdesignermusthaveintroducedthe
coordinatedinformation,eitherlatentlyinveryearlycells,
orlaterintheirsubsequenthistory.
Reply:Theideaofapreconceivedorderneglectstheroleof
mutationsandtheorganismscontinuingresponsetoa
changingenvironment.
Componentsservingotherfunctionscanbecombinedin
newwaystoservenewfunctions(seeKennethMiller,
FindingDarwinsGod).

BiochemicalMachine:

IndividualParts:

FunctionFavoredby
NaturalSelection

Nofunction.Therefore,natural
selectioncannotshapecomponents.

Biochemical
Machine:

IndividualParts:

NewFunctionsEmerge
fromCombinationsof
Components

Components
Originatewith
differentfunctions.

IndividualParts:

BiochemicalMachine:

FunctionFavoredby
NaturalSelection
Nofunction.Therefore,natural
selectioncannotshapecomponents.

TheBiochemical
ArgumentfromDesign
Dependsuponalackof
SelectableFunctionin
MachineComponents

IndividualParts:

Biochemical
Machine:

NewFunctionsEmerge
fromCombinationsof
Components

Components
Originatewith
differentfunctions.

TheDarwinian
ExplanationDepends
uponthepresenceof
SelectableFunctionin
MachineComponents.

IDproponentsrightlyobjectthatsomebiologistssuchas
RichardDawkinsdefendatheism,naturalismormaterialism
asiftheywerescientificallyprovenclaims.
Theseareindeedphilosophicalinterpretationsbroughttothe
dataratherthanexperimentallytestablehypotheses.
Wecanacceptmethodologicalnaturalism,whichsaysthat
scienceislimitedtostudyingnaturalcauses,withoutaccepting
philosophicalnaturalism,whichsaysthatnatureisallthereis
andscienceistheonlypathtounderstanding(scientism).
Explanatorypluralismsuggeststhatthereareavarietyof
typesofexplanationansweringdifferingtypesofquestionin

humanlife.

RichardDawkins:
Theuniversehaspreciselythepropertieswe
wouldexpectifthereisatbottomnodesign,no
purpose,noevil,andnogood,nothingbut
blind,pitilessindifference.
RiverofEden,p.133

IDproponentsrightlysaythatevolutionarytheoryhasledto
dubiousethicalpractices.
Thesurvivalofthefittesthasbeenusedtojustifyunrestr
ainedcapitalism,colonialdominationofinferiorraces,and
eugenicsprogramsinNaziGermany(SocialDarwinism).
Somesociobiologistsclaimthathumanbehaviorscanbe
explainedandjustifiedbytheircontributiontothesurvivalof
ourPaleolithicancestors.
Howeveralltheseclaimsshouldbeseen,notaspartofevolu
tionarytheory,butasquestionableextrapolationsthatignore
thedifferencesbetweenbiologicalandculturalevolution.

GapsintheEvolutionaryAccount
Creationistsoncepointedtogapsinthefossilrecord,but
manyofthesehavebeenfilledinbytransitionalforms.
Tobesure,wedonotunderstandtheoriginsoflifeorof
consciousness,muchlessselfconsciousness.
Butinvokingsupernaturalinterventionwouldcutshort
furtherscientificinquiryconcerningsuchquestions.
Inthepast,theGodofthegapshasretreatedwiththe
advanceofscience,soIDisdubiousreligionaswellas
dubiousscience.

Evolutionisatheory,notafact
1.Evidenceforalonghistoryofdescentwithmodification
fromcommonancestorsissooverwhelmingthatitshould
beconsideredafact,eventhoughthepastcannotbe
observeddirectly.
2.Thetheorythatmutationsandnaturalselectionplaya
centralroleinevolutionisverystronglysupportedbya
widerangeofdisciplines:paleontology,physiology,
genetics,embryology,molecularbiology,andimmunology
(e.g.evolutionofantibioticresistantpathogensandnew
formsofavianflu).Thepowerofthetheoryisitsrelevance
tosomanyindependentfieldsofinquiry.

3.Thereareindeeddebatesamongbiologistsaboutthe
roleofotherfactors,suchashistoricalcontingencies,
socialstructures,ordevelopmentalconstraintsonpossible
embryonicforms,butthesedebatesyieldhypothesesthat
canbetestedbeforetheyareacceptedastheories.
4.Notheorycanbeverifiedwithcertainty,butatheory
canbefalsifiedbyanaccumulationofdatathatconflicts
withitor(morerarely)itcanbemodifiedinaparadigm
shiftbasedonalternativepresuppositions(e.g.Newtonian
mechanicsreplacedbyquantumtheoryandrelativityin
verysmallorverylargestructures).

SupportfortheIDMovement
Localsupporthascomeprimarilyfromevangelical
Christianswhosemotivationsareclearlyreligiousrather
thanscientific.
Financialsupporthascomemainlyfromthereligiousright
throughtheDiscoveryInstituteinSeattle,withwhichmost
ofthewitnessessupportingIDatrecenttrialsandhearings
areaffiliated.
IDisseenasanopeningwedgefortheinclusionof
Christianbeliefsinpubliceducation.

TheSocialContextofFundamentalism
Secularism,religiouspluralism,andalternativelifestylesand
genderrolesareseenasthreatstotraditionalfamilyvalues.
Searchforsecurityinachangingworld.Absolutismoftruth
claimsandmoralvaluesinresponsetowhatisseenasall
encompassingrelativism.
Thepowerofemotioninreligiouslifehasbeenlostinthe
formalityandintellectualismofmainlinechurches.
ComparethegrowthoffundamentalisminIslam,fuelednot
onlybynationalismandthelegacyofcolonialismbutalsoby
confrontationwithmodernizationandsecularizationwhich

threatentraditionalvalues.

SchoolBoardIssues
Localcontrolofschoolboards.Parentsshoulddecidewhat
theywanttaughttotheirchildren.Federalcourtsareoutof
touchwithlocalsentiments.
Reply:promulgationofparticularreligiousbeliefsviolatesthe
constitutionalseparationofchurchandstate.
Scienceteachersmustdrawfromandacceptthestandardsof
thewidercommunityofscientists.
NationalAcademyofSciences(1998):Scienceislimitedto
explainingthenaturalworldthroughnaturalcauses.Science
cansaynothingaboutthesupernatural.WhetherGodexistsor

notisaquestionaboutwhichscienceisneutral.

MediaCoverage
Themediahaspresentedthetwoextremespeoplewho
believeinGodbutnotevolution,andpeoplewhobelieve
inevolutionbutnotGodasifconflictwereinevitable
andonehadtochoosebetweenscienceandreligion.
TheyhavetendedtoleaveoutthosewhoaffirmbothGod
andevolution,orwhoholdthatevolutionisGodswayof
creating.
Letuslookatevolutionarytheorymorecarefullyandthen
atalternativewaysofrelatingscienceandreligion.

II.EVOLUTIONARYBIOLOGY
TheArgumentfromDesignbeforeDarwin:
Ifyoufindawatchonaheath,youknowitwasthe
productofintelligentdesignandnotchance.Similarly,
thecoordinationofcomplexstructuresinfulfilling
usefulfunctionsinnaturemustbetheproductof
intelligence.Example:themanypartsoftheeyework
togethertoachievevision.
SeeWilliamPaley,NaturalTheology(1802).
Darwin:Theadaptationofcomplexstructurestouseful
functionsistheresultofthegradualnaturalselectionof
suchusefulstructuresinthepast,nottheresultofany
pastanticipationoffuturefunctions.

TheChallengeofEvolution:
ToBiblicalLiteralism.Reply:ManytheologianssinceSt.
Augustinehaveinterpretedscripturalpassagesmetaphorically
ratherthanliterally.Sincethe19thcentury,historicalscholars
havesaidthattheBibleexpressedenduringtheologicalinsights
intermsoftheprescientificcosmologyoftheMiddleEast.
Fundamentalismandcreationsciencearemorerecentviews,
mainlyintheU.S.
ToHumanUniqueness.Reply:Humansaredescendantsof
nonhumanancestorsandsharemanycharacteristicswiththem.
Buttheyhavedistinctivecapacitiessuchassymbolicthought
andlanguageandformsofculture.

TheChallengeToDesign.

Alternativeviewsofdesign:
1) Designoflawsonly(Darwin)
2)Designofinitialconditions(Hawking)
3)Controlofquantumuncertainties(Russell)
4)Evolutionaryconvergence(ConwayMorris)
5)Emergentlevels(Kauffman).

CharlesDarwin:

Iaminclinedtolookateverythingasresulting
fromdesignedlawswiththedetails,whether
goodorbad,lefttotheworkingofwhatwemay
callchance....Icannotthinkthattheworldas
weseeitistheresultofchance;yetIcannot
lookateachseparatethingastheresultof
Design.
LetterstoAsaGray,22Mayand26November,1860

TheBigBang
Whathappenedatthebeginning?
Asingularityatt=0,apointofzerosizeandinfinite
energywherethelawsofphysicsbreakdown.
Similaritiestothebiblicalaccount:
Abeginningoftime(ratherthanabeginningintime).
Creationfromnothing(orfromaquantumvacuum)?
Initiationofanorderedirreversiblesequence.
Finetuningofthephysicalconstants
Eachoftheconstantsoftheearlyuniversemustbewithin
averyverynarrowrangeforlifeandconsciousnesstobe
possible(theAnthropicPrinciple).Isthisanewargument
fromdesign?

StephenHawking:
Iftherateofexpansiononesecondafterthebigbanghad
beensmallerbyevenonepartinahundredthousand
millionmillion,itwouldhaverecollapsedbeforeit
reacheditspresentsize....Theoddsagainstauniverse
likeoursemergingoutofsomethingliketheBigBangare
enormous.Ithinkthereareclearlyreligiousimplications.
QuotedinJohnBarlow,StephenHawkingsUniverse,p.121

ThreeInterpretationsofUncertainty
1.AsTemporaryHumanIgnorance(Einstein)
Futureexactlawswillallowprecisepredictions.The
universeisrational,orderly,anddeterministic.
2.AsFundamentalHumanLimitation(Bohr)
Observationsdisturbwhatisobserved.
Humanconcepts(e.g.waveorparticle)arelimitedand
complementary(theCopenhageninterpretation).
Agnosticaboutdeterminismorindeterminacy.
3.AsIndeterminacyinNature(Heisenberg)
Observationistheactualizationofoneinarangeof
potentialitiesintheworld.Indeterminacy.

GodasDeterminerofIndeterminacies
Goddeterminesquantumevents(RobertRussell).
Notinterventiontoalteranexistingstate,butactualizingoneof
therangeofpotentialitiespresent.
Godcouldmakethefinaldeterminationamongstatesofidentical
energy(noenergyinputneeded).
Scientificallyundetectableifstatisticallylawful.
Smalldifferencesatthequantumlevelaresometimesamplifiedto
givelargescaleeffects(chaostheory,mutations,perhaps
neuralsystems).
Godmightdetermineallevents,oronlysomeevents.
some.

Problem:IfGoddeterminesallevents,itis
difficulttoreconciledivinesovereigntywith
suffering,evil,andhumanfreedomevenif
Godscontrolissubtleanddoesnotviolate
scientificlaws.
AnAlternative:Chanceandlawarebothpart
ofthedesignofnature.

EvolutionaryConvergence
SimonConwayMorris,LifesSolutions(2003)

Verydifferentlineagesconvergeonsimilarsolutions
Cameralikeeyesevolvedindependentlyatleast6times
Manyphysiologicalandbehavioralparallelsbetween
marsupialandplacentalmammals
Similaritiesinbrainstructure,communication,andsocial
structureindolphinsandchimps
Chanceislesssignificantintheoutcomewhenthereare
onlyalimitednumberofeffectivesolutions
Theconstraintsofevolutionandtheubiquity
ofconvergencemaketheemergenceofsome
thinglikeourselvesanearinevitability.

AnEmergentHierarchyofLevels
SeeIanBarbour,WhenScienceMeetsReligion,Chap.4.

EpistemologicalReductionism:theoriesandlawsat
higherlevelscanbederivedfromthoseatlowerlevels.
OntologicalReductionism:lowerlevelcomponentsare
morecausallyeffectivethanhigherlevelsystems.
Causalityactsfromthebottomup.
Emergence:novelformsoforderathigherlevelsare
unpredictablefromtheoriesandlawsgoverninglower
levels.
TopdownCausality:systemsathigherlevelsinfluence
theboundaryconditionsofsystemsatlowerlevelswithout
violatinglowerlevellaws.

TrendsinEvolutionaryHistory
NoSimpleDirectionality:blindalleys,retrogression,
extinctions,manydirections.Opportunism:adaptationto
theimmediatelocalenvironment,nottofutureneeds.
Morelikeasprawlingbushthana
neatlyorganizedtree(StephenJayGould).
OverallTrends:greaterdiversity,responsivenessand
complexity(numberofsignificantconnectionsandlevels
oforganization).
Increaseincapacitytogather,store,andprocess
information(amoeba,invertebrates,vertebrates,
mammals,apes,humans,cultures).
Causality:biologistsobjectwhenformalorfinalcauses
aresubstitutedforthesearchforefficientcauses.

ConceptsofChance
Theintersectionoftwoindependentcausal
chainseachgovernedbydeterministiclaws(e.g.,
theorbitofanasteroidandthehistoryofdinosaurs).
Thefutureisdeterminedbutunpredictablein
practice.
Therandomnessofsomeevents(e.g.,quantum
eventsamplifiedthroughmutations).Thefutureis
openandinprincipleunpredictable.
Inbothcases,scientificevidencecancontributeto
thenarrativeofevolutionaryhistorybutnotto
predictingitfromlaws.

ConceptsofDesign
Designaspreexistentblueprint,adetailedplan..This
viewisthreatenedbyanyelementofchance.
Reply:death,suffering,andhumanfreedomarethen
problematic.Alsotherearemanyexamplesofimperfectdesign,
suchastheblindspotintheretinaoftheeye.
Designasgeneraldirectiontowardlifeandconsciousness,but
withnopredictablefinalstate.Abiofriendlyuniverse.Both
chanceandlawhavearoleintheoutcome.
Necessaryfeaturesofanevolutionaryworld:death(successive
generations)andsuffering(fromcompetition).
Godendowedmatterwithdiversepotentialitiesandpropensities,
includingthepossibilityofhumanfreedom.

III.EVOLUTIONARYTHEISM
NaturalTheology:theattempttoprovetheexistenceof
Godfromfeaturesofnature,e.g.,theargumentfrom
design.
TheologyofNature:theattempttoviewfeaturesof
naturefromwithinareligioustraditionbasedonthe
religiousexperienceofahistoricalcommunity.
ReligioninHumanLife:ritual,meditation,thehealingof
brokennessinindividualandsociallife,ethicalnorms.For
Christians,responsetothelifeanddeathofChrist.
Traditionalbeliefscanbereformulatedinthecontextof
thereligiouscommunityinthelightofscience.

 TheLimitationsofScience:everyscienceisselective,
usinglimitedconceptstounderstandparticularaspects
ofexperience.
Metaquestions:whyisthereauniverseatall,whydoes
ithavetheorderithas,whyisitintelligibletothehuman
mind?Questionsraisedbutnotansweredbyscience.
Doctrinesasrelationships:creation,fall,redemption,
fulfillmentarenotasequenceofeventsbutenduring
characteristicsoftherelationbetweenGodandthe
world.

ScienceandReligionasDistinctiveDomains
Scienceasksaboutregularitiesamongeventsinnature.

Empiricalinquiryintheinterestofpredictionandcontrol.
Religionasksaboutultimatemeaningandpurpose. A
wayoflifeexpressedintherituals,storiesandpracticesofa
community.
AnalyticPhilosophyclaimsthatdifferinglanguagesystems
havedifferingandindependentfunctionsinhumanlife.
However,scienceandreligiondosometimesinfluenceeach
other.OurunderstandingofnatureaffectsourviewofGods
relationtonature.
FivemodelsofGodsactionthroughthestructuresofnature
ratherthanbysupernaturalinterventioninviolationofthe
lawsofnature:

1.PrimaryandSecondaryCausality
Godasprimarycauseworksthroughthesecondary
causesthatscienceinvestigates(neoThomism).
Primarycausalityisadifferentorderofexplanation,
answeringquestionsunlikethosethatscientistsaskabout
relationshipsbetweennaturalevents.
Godisradicallytranscendent,notanothercauselike
naturalcauses.
Theintegrityofthecreatedorderandtheintegrityof
sciencearepreserved(WilliamStoeger).
Natureisadevelopmentaleconomywithoutdeficiencies
requiringlaterintervention(Howardvan
Til).

2.GodasCommunicatorofInformation
Information:anorderedpatterninasequenceofelements
(DNA,computerdigits,letters,sounds).
Communicationofinformationoccurswhenanother
systemrespondsselectively(cell,computer,human
person).
Meaningofthemessageisnotcontainedinthesequence
itselfbutisdependentonawidercontextofinterpretation.

 Godsactionasaninputofpureinformation.
Selectionamongpossibilitiesinchaoticprocesses(John
Polkinghorne).
DivineWordasrationalprinciple(Greeklogos)andas
creativepower(Hebrew).
Themeaningofthemessageisdiscernableonlyina
widercontextofinterpretation.
ForChristians,themessageofcreationisseeninthe
personofChrist(theWordmadeflesh)butalsointhe
createdorder.

3.GodasTopdownCause
Anextensionoftheideaoftopdowncausalitybetween
levelsintheworld(ArthurPeacocke).
Upperlevelsproduceconstraintsorboundaryconditions
onlowerlevelswithoutviolatinglowerlevellaws.
Chanceandlawtogetherarecreativeandexpressiveof
openendeddesign.
Godspurposesarecommunicatedthroughthepatternsof
events,expressingintentionsbutnotapredeterminedplan.
ChristisamodeofGodsselfexpression,
revealingGodsnaturetous.

4.GodsSelfLimitation(Kenosis)
BetweentheomnipotentGodofclassicalChristianityand
theinactiveGodofDeism(NanceyMurphy&George
Ellis).
Godspowerisnotomnipotentcontrolbutthe
empowermentofotherbeings.
Anincompletecosmosstillcomingintobeing.
ThecrossshowsaGodwhoparticipatesinsufferingand
transformsitthroughredeeminglove.
Comparefeministcritiquesofmale
imagesofcoercivepower(bothin
humanrelationsandinGodsaction).

5.ProcessTheology
Realityasadynamicwebofmomentaryevents,nota
collectionofenduringselfcontainedobjects(AlfredNorth
Whitehead).
Rejectsmindmatterdualismandmaterialism.Defendsa
twoaspectmonisminahierarchyoforganizationallevels.
Allintegratedentitieshaveobjectiveandsubjective
(experiential)featuresinvaryingdegrees,butonlyhigher
levelorganismsareconscious.
ToeveryentityGodpresentsnewpossibilities
withopenalternatives,elicitingitsresponse.
Godistheultimatesourceofbothorderand
novelty,buttheentityitselfselectsamong
alternatives.

 Anunfinisheduniverseshowingorderanddisorderis
compatiblewiththebiblicalmessageofpromiseandhope
butnotwiththeideaofcompleteddesign(JohnHaught).
AGodofselflimitingloveallowscreaturelycreativityin
theemergenceofnewformsoforder,relationality,and
inclusivecommunity.
Godsparticipationinthesufferingoftheworldcontrasts
withGodsdetachmentinDeism.
Promiseandhopepointtowardthefutureratherthanthe
past.

TheBiblicalViewoftheHolySpirit
AsGodactiveinbothnatureandhumanlife.
Theearthwaswithoutformandvoid,andthedarkness
wasuponthefaceofthedeep,andtheSpiritofGodwas
movingoverthefaceofthewaters(Genesis1:2).
Plantsandanimals:WhenthousendestforththySpirit,
theyarecreated(Psalm104:30).
Inspirationoftheprophets(Ezekiel11:5).
Worship:TakenotthyHolySpiritfromme(Psalm
51:11).
ChristreceivedtheSpiritathisbaptism(Mark1:10).
HisfollowerswereempoweredbytheSpirit(Acts2).

 TheroleoftheSpiritinnature,religiousexperience,andthe
lifeofChristoffersacommonframeworkforcreationand
redemption,whichareoftencontrasted.
Come,HolySpirit,renewthywholecreation.

ThemeofWorldCouncilofChurches1991Assembly

Conclusion

InaTheisticFramework:
Orderincludeslawfulnesswithoutexcludingnovelty,
creativity,andcontingency.
Purposecanbeexpressedinopenendeddesign,but
intentionandagencyareneededtoavoidDeism.
HumanResponses:
ToaUniverseofChance:pessimismorcouragein
facingmeaninglessness;searchforsecurity.
ToaUniverseofLaw:resignation,alienationfrom
animpersonalcosmos.
ToaUniverseofDesign:gratitude,trust,hope.
Wecanacceptmanybiblicalaffirmationstoday,
eventhoughourcosmologyisverydifferent.

ImagesaccompaniedbyversesfromthePsalms: