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Theory 1-1
Introduction
AVO stands for Amplitude Variations with Offset,
Offset or Amplitude Versus
Offset.
Offset
The AVO technique uses the amplitude variations of prestack seismic
reflections to predict reservoir fluid effects.
In this course, we will look at AVO modeling, reconnaissance and
inversion techniques.
Before discussing AVO,
AVO we will have a look at the essentials of rock
physics.
Theory 1-2
Theory 1-3
Density
Density effects can be modeled with the following equation:
porosity,
Sw water saturation ,
sat,m,hc ,w saturated, matrix,
hydrocarbon , water subscripts.
This is illustrated in the next
graph.
Theory 1-4
Theory 1-5
Velocity
Unlike density, which is simply mass divided by unit volume, velocity
involves the deformation of a rock as a function of time. Let us first
consider the ways in which a square of rock can be moved or deformed:
(a) Contraction
(b) Lengthening
(e) Shear
(c) Rotation
(d) Translation
Theory 1-6
Hookes Law
Small stresses and strains (the linear case) are related by Hookes Law:
Law
p ce
where: p = stress = force per unit area,
c = an elastic constant,
and:
e = strain
For a pure compressive stress [case (a)], the elastic constant is called
the bulk modulus,
modulus K.
For a pure shear stress [case (e)], the elastic constant is called the shear
modulus,
modulus .
Theory 1-8
p xx
p p yx
p zx
p xy
p yy
p zy
p xz
p yz
p zz
Theory 1-9
exx
exy
e eyx
ezx
eyy
ezy
exz
1
eyz
2
ezz
1
2
u x
x
u x u y
y
x
u x u z
z
x
1 u x u y
2 y
x
u y
y
1 u y u z
2 z
y
2
1
u x u z
z
x
u y u z
z
y
u z
Theory 1-10
p xx
p
yy
C11
C
12
p zz C13
p yz C14
p xz C15
p xy C16
C12
C13
C14
C15
C22
C23
C24
C25
C23
C24
C33
C34
C34
C44
C35
C45
C25
C26
C35
C36
C45
C46
C55
C56
C16 exx
C26 e yy
C36 ezz
e
C46 yz
C56 exz
C66 exy
Theory 1-11
p xx
p
yy
p zz
p yz
p xz
0
0
p xy
0
2
2 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
exx
e yy
ezz
e yz
exz
exy
Theory 1-12
2u 2u 2u
1 2u
2 2 2 2
2
x
y
z
V t
2
VP
Vs
4
K
3
VP
Vs
Theory 1-15
Poissons Ratio
A common way of looking at the ratio of VP to VS is to use Poissons ratio,
ratio
defined as:
2
2 2
where :
VP
VS
2 2
2 1
Theory 1-16
Poissons Ratio
There are several values of Poissons ratio and VP/VS
ratio that should be noted:
If VP/VS = 2, then = 0
If VP/VS = 1.5, then = 0.1 (Gas Case)
Case
If VP/VS = 2, then = 1/3 (Wet Case)
Case
If VP/VS = , then = 0.5 (VS = 0)
0
A plot of Poissons ratio versus velocity ratio is shown on the next
slide.
Theory 1-17
Poisson's Ratio
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
0
Gas Case
Wet Case
10
Vp/Vs
Theory 1-18
t a t m(1 ) tw Sw t hc(1 Sw )
where : t 1/ V
Unfortunately, the above equation does not hold for gas sands, and
this lead to the development of other equations.
Theory 1-19
Velocity (m/sec)
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
0
Oil
Water Saturation
Theory 1-20
VP (1 )2 Vm Vfl
Raymer et al.
Theory 1-21
VP
K sat
4
sat
3
sat
Vs
sat
sat
Note that sat is found using the volume average equation discussed
earlier.
Theory 1-22
sat dry
where :
dry
Theory 1-23
K sat K dry
K dry 2
(1
)
Km
1 K dry
2
K fl
Km
Km
(1)
K dry
K sat
K fl
K m K sat K m K dry ( K m K fl )
(2)
Where sat = saturated rock, dry = dry frame, m = rock matrix, fl = fluid,
and = porosity.
Theory 1-24
Theory 1-25
Theory 1-26
The bulk modulus of the solid rock matrix, Km is usually taken from
published data that involved measurements on drill core samples.
Typical values are:
Ksandstone = 40 GPa,
Klimestone = 60 GPa.
Theory 1-27
1
Sw 1 Sw
K fl K w
K hc
bulk modulus of water ,
w
bulk modulus of hydrocarbon.
where : K
K
hc
Equations for estimating the values of brine, gas, and oil bulk modulii
are given in Batzle and Wang, 1992, Seismic Properties of Pore Fluids,
Fluids
Geophysics, 57, 1396-1408. Typical values are:
Estimating Kdry
For known VS and VP, Kdry can be calculated by first calculating Ksat
and then using Mavkos equation.
equation
For known VP, but unknown VS, Kdry can be estimated (Gregory, 1977) by
assuming the dry rock Poissons ratio dry. Gregory shows that equation
(1) can be rewritten as:
K dry 2
)
Km
1 K dry
2
K fl
Km
Km
(1
M sat M dry
3(1 dry )
(1 dry )
Theory 1-29
Estimating Kdry
After a lot of algebra, the previous equation can be written as the
following quadratic equation for a term that involves Kdry. Solving for
gives the solution.
a 2 b 0
where : the Biot coefficient 1
K dry
Km
a S 1,
Km
b S
1 S sat
K
Km
fl
M
c S sat
Km
Km
K 1
fl
Theory 1-30
Porosity Change
Porosity affects the dry rock bulk modulus, and this effect can be
computed by using the following equation:
1
1
K P K dry K m
where: KP = pore bulk modulus
If we assume that the pore bulk modulus stays constant for a range of
porosities, but the dry rock bulk modulus changes as a function of
porosity, we can compute a new dry rock bulk modulus for a different
porosity using the following re-arranged version of the above equation:
1
K dry _ new
new
1
KP Km
Theory 1-31
Data Examples
In the next few slides, we will look at the computed responses for both a
gas-saturated sand and an oil-saturated sand using the Biot-Gassmann
equation.
equation
We will look at the effect of saturation on both velocity (VP and VS) and
Poissons Ratio.
Ratio
Keep in mind that this model assumes that the gas is uniformly
distributed in the fluid. Patchy saturation provides a different function.
(See Mavko et al: The Rock Physics Handbook.)
Handbook
Theory 1-32
Velocity (m/s)
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
0
0.1
0.2
Vp
0.3
0.4
Vs
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Sw
Theory 1-33
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Poisson's Ratio
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Sw
Theory 1-34
0.5
0.4
100
0.3
99
POISSON'S
RATIO
98
0.2
96
94
90
75
50 0
0.1
0
0
1-35
Velocity (m/s)
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
0
0.1
Vs
0.2
Vp
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Sw
Theory 1-36
Poisson's Ratio
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Poisson's Ratio
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Sw
Theory 1-37
VP 1.16VS 1360m/s
Note that for a constant Poissons ratio,
ratio the intercept is zero:
2 2
VP
VS
2 1
This will be illustrated in the next few
slides.
Theory 1-38
Theory 1-39
4000
3000
Gas Sand
VP (m/s)
2000
1000
0
0
1000
VS(m/s)
2000
3000
4000
Theory 1-40
= 1/3
Mudrock Line
or
VP/VS = 2
4000
3000
Gas Sand
VP (m/s)
2000
1000
0
0
1000
VS(m/s)
2000
3000
4000
Theory 1-41
= 1/3
Mudrock Line
or
VP/VS = 2
4000
3000
Gas Sand
VP (m/s)
2000
= 0.1
or
VP/VS = 1.5
1000
0
0
1000
VS(m/s)
2000
3000
4000
Theory 1-42
Theory 1-43
Theory 1-44
CAUTIONS:
Rocks with large Km and Kdry values (most carbonates)
appear insensitive to saturation changes in Gassmann theory.
Gassmann assumed that pore pressure remains constant
during wave propagation. This implies fluids are mobile
between pores and all stress is carried by Kdry.
This assumption is violated at high frequencies in highly
variable and compressible pore systems.
Carbonates with an abundance of crack-type pores and
heterogeneous pore systems are not suitable for standard Gassmann
theory.
Theory 1-45
Theory 1-46
Theory 1-47
Theory 1-48
Theory 1-49
Theory 1-50
wet br m 1
M VP
2
4
Mm Km m
3
Theory 1-51
M
Kfl
Kbr
d
Mm M *( Mm Kfl ) *( Mm Kbr )
Mwet d *
Mm
1 d
5) Calculate VP_wet
VPwet
Mwet
wet
VS wet Ac VPwet Bc
7) Calculate VS_input from VS_wet
wet
VS VSwet *
Theory 1-52
VS * ;
2
K *VP
4
*
3
9) Obtain Kdry:
K
Kfl
a
Km K
* ( Km Kfl )
a
Kdry Km *
1 a
10) Calculate Ksat with new fluid:
Kdry out
Kfl out
a
out
out
Km Kdry
*( Km Kfl out )
K out Km *
a
1 a
Theory 1-53
out
fl
out
out
m *(1
out
VP
out
4 out
3
;
out
K out
VS
out
out
out
Theory 1-54
Range
0.05 to 0.25
0.25 to 0.35
0.16 to 0.32
Mean
0.31
0.27
Range
2 to 20
25 to 60
25 to 60
Mean
38
45
Theory 1-55
Theory 1-56
S w So S g
1
K fl K w K o K g
This averaging
technique assumes
uniform fluid
distribution!
-Gas and liquid must
be evenly distributed
in every pore.
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
Theory 1-57
Patchy Saturation
When fluids are not uniformly mixed, effective modulus values cannot
be estimated from Reuss averaging.
Non-uniform (or patchy) fluid distributions are defined relative to
permeability, fluid viscosity and frequency bandwidth (scale dependent:
millimeters for logs and meters for seismic).
When:
Patch Length
Kw
f
Where:
= Permeability
Kw = Bulk modulus of the most viscous phase.
f = Signal frequency
= Viscosity of the most viscous phase
Theory 1-58
Patchy Saturation:
When patch sizes are large, with respect to the seismic wavelength,
Voigt averaging gives the best estimate of Kfl (Domenico, 1976).
K fl K w K g S w K g
e
Theory 1-59
Patchy Saturation:
Gassmann predicted velocities
Unconsolidated sand matrix
Porosity = 30%
100% Gas to 100% Brine saturation
Vp (km/s)
2.5
2.3
Patchy
Voigt
Reuss
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.5
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
Theory 1-60
Theory 1-61
Theory 1-62
Theory 1-63
Conclusions
An understanding of rock physics is crucial for the interpretation of
AVO anomalies.
The volume average equation can be used to model density in a water
sand, but this equation does not match observations for velocities in
a gas sand.
The Biot-Gassmann equations match observations well for
unconsolidated gas sands.
When dealing with more complex porous media with patchy
saturation, or fracture type porosity (e.g. carbonates), the BiotGassmann equations do not hold.
The ARCO mudrock line is a good empirical tool for the wet sands
and shales.
Theory 1-64