CHAPTER 9

Manufactured
Substances
in Industry

A_ Sulphuric Acid
B_Ammonia and Its Salts
C_Alloys
D_Synthetic Polymers
E_Glass and Ceramics
F_Composite Materials
2

(A)
SULPHURIC ACID

1. The manufacture of sulphuric acid,

H2SO4 in industry is called Contact
Process.
2. This is because sulphur dioxide, SO2
reacts with oxygen in contact with the
catalyst several times.
3. Catalysts are normally substance made
from transition elements to speed up
the rate of reaction.
4. The raw material used are sulphur, air
4

Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid

Contact Process consists of 3

stages

Stage 1
In the furnace, molten sulphur is
burnt in dry air to produce sulphur
dioxide, SO2. The gas produced is
purified and cooled.
S

(l)

+ O2

(g)

SO2 (g)
6

Stage 2
In the converter, SO2 and excess O2
2SO2(g) + O2

(g)

2SO3 (g)

Temperature: 450C - 550 C

Catalyst: vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5
Pressure: 1 atm
The SO3 produced in the second stage is
contaminated with SO2.
The gas is absorbed with calcium hydroxide,
Ca(OH)2 to prevent it from escaping to the air,
causing environmental pollution.
7

Stage 3
In the absorber, the SO3 is first
reacted with concentrated sulphuric
acid, H2SO4 to form a product called
oleum, H2S2O7.
SO3 (g) + H2SO4

(l)

H2S2O7 (l)

The oleum, H2S2O7 is then diluted

with water to produce
concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4
in large quantities.
8

 The two reactions in the third stage are

equivalent to adding SO3 directly to
water.
SO3 (g) + H2SO4

(l)

H2S2O7 (l) + H2O

H2S2O7 (l)
(l)

2H2SO4 (l)

SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4

(l)

This is not done in industry because

SO3 reacts too violently with water.
This produce a lot of heat and a large
cloud of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 mist.
The mist is corrosive, pollutes the
air and is difficult to condense.
9

Uses of Sulphuric Acid

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Manufacture of detergents
Production of Fertilizers
Manufacture for artificial fibres
Manufacture of Paint
Leather tanning
As electrolyte in car battery
Used to remove oxides from the
surface of metals. (Metallurgy)
8. Used to remove sulphur
compounds in crude oil.
10

SO2 and Environmental Pollution

11

(B)
Ammonia
&
Its salts

12

Manufacture of Ammonia
Ammonia is manufacture in
industries through Haber Process.
Haber Process is invented by Fritz
Haber (1868 1934) in year 1918
who was awarded the Noble Prizes.
This process combines N2 from the
air with H2 to form ammonia, NH3.

13

N2

(g)

+ 3H2

(g)

2NH3(g)

Temperature: 450C - 550 C

Catalyst:

Iron powder , Fe

Pressure:

200 500 atm

Ratio N2 : H2 = 1 : 3
The production of ammonia gives
out heat.
14

Manufacture of
Ammonia

15

Uses of Ammonia
To manufacture
Fertilizer - ammonium
sulphate, ammonium nitrate
Used as raw material to
produce nitric acid
Used as an alkali to prevent
the coagulation of latex

16

Properties of Ammonia, NH3

Is alkaline
Is a colourless gas
Has a pungent smell
Is less dense than air
Burns in oxygen gas but not in the air
Is very soluble in water
Gives a white fume when reacted with
hydrogen chloride gas, HCl

17

(C)
ALLOYS

18

Arrangement of atoms in
metals
Pure metals are made up
of the same type of atoms
and are of the same size.
These atoms are orderly
arranged.
The arrangement of the
atoms in metals gives the
metals their ductile and
malleable properties.
19

Ductile Properties

The orderly arrangement of atoms in

metals enables the layer of atoms
to slide on one another when force
is applied
Thus metals are ductile or can be
stretched

20

Malleable Properties

There are some imperfections in the

orderly arrangement of atoms in
metals. Empty space exist in the
structures of pure metals.
When a metal is pressed, groups of
metal atoms may slide into new
position in these empty space.
This is why metal are malleable or can
21

What are alloys?

An alloy is a mixture of two or more

elements with a certain fixed

composition in which the major
component is a metal.
Make them
Stronger
Harder
More resistance to corrosion
Have a better furnish and luster
22

Arrangement of atoms in alloys

The presence of atoms of other metals

that are of different sizes disrupt the
orderly arrangement of atoms in
the metal.
This prevent the layer of atoms
from sliding causes alloy is stronger
23

Alloy

Steel

Compositio
n

Pewter

99% Fe
1% C
97% Sn
3% Cu &
Sb

Properties

lustre, shiny and

strong

Bronze

90% Cu
10% Sn

Brass

Magnalium

70% Cu
30% Zn

70% Al
30% Mg

hard and strong

hard and strong

does not corrode
easily
has shiny surface

Uses
Make bridges, bulidings,
cars body & railway
tracks
Make souvenirs

make statue or
monuments, medals,
swords & artistic material

harder than copper

Make musical
instruments and
kitchenware

Light, hard and strong

Make aircraft body

frames
Make rims of racing car
typres

Experiment 9.2
Compare hardness of pure metal and its alloy?

Aim :
To compare the hardness of pure metal and its alloy?
Problem :
Are alloys harder than pure metals?
Hypothesis:
Bronze is harder than copper
Variables :
(a) Manipulated : bronze and copper
(b) Responding : diameter of the dent or hardness
of material
(c) Fixed :
diameter of steel ball bearing; height of
25
the

Experiment 9.2
Compare hardness of pure metal and its alloy?

Apparatus : retort stand with clamp, 1kg weight,

metre rule
Materials : copper block, bronze block, cellophane
tape, thread
Apparatus Set-up:

26

Experiment 9.2
Compare hardness of pure metal and its alloy?

Procedure:
1. Stick a steel ball bearing onto the copper block
using cellophane tape.
2. Hang 1kg weight at a height of 50cm above the
ball bearing as shown.
3. Drop the weight so that it hits the ball bearing.
4. Measure the diameter of the dent made on the
copper block.
5. Repeat step 1 to 4 twice on the other parts of the
copper block in order to obtain an average value.
6. Repeat step 1 to 5 using bronze block to replace
the copper block.
7. Record the readings in a table.

27

Experiment 9.2
Compare hardness of pure metal and its alloy?
Results :
Experiment

Average

Diameter of
dent on
copper block
(cm)

0.40

0.30

0.50

0.40

Diameter of
dent on
bronze block
(cm)

0.35

0.25

0.40

0.33

Inferences : Bronze is harder than copper

28

Experiment 9.2
Compare hardness of pure metal and its alloy?

Discussions :
1. The bronze block produces a smaller
dent.
2. The smaller the diameter of the dent,
the higher is the hardness of the block
Conclusion:
Alloy is harder than pure metal.
Hypothesis is accepted
29

(D)

Synthetic Polymers

30

What are polymers?

Polymers are large molecules
made up of many identical
repeating sub-unit called
monomers.
These monomers are joined together
by covalent bonds.
Monomers are joined into chains by a
process called polymerisation

31

Proteins are polymers of

amino acids

Natural
rubber

Polypropylen
e

Styrene monomers join together to

make polystyrene

Polymers
Natural Polymers

Synthetic Polymers
rubber

polythene

protein

Polyvinyl chloride, PVC

starch

polypropene

cellulose

perspex

Wool & silk

nylon
polystyrene
terylene
37

Monomers in Synthetic
polymers

Synthetic Polymers
Polythene /
polyethylene
Polypropene /
polypropylene

Monomer

Ethene, C2H4
Propene, C3H6

Polyvinyl chloride, PVC / Chloroethene, C2H3Cl

polychloroethene
Perspex

Methylmethacrylate

Terylene

Hexane-1, 6- diol &

Benzene-1, 4dicarboxylic acid

Nylon

Hexane-1, 6-diamine &

38
Hexane-1, 6-dioic
acid

Uses of Synthetic polymers

Synthetic
Polymers

Uses

Polyethene (PE)

Plastic bags, shopping bags, plastic

containers and insulation for electrical
wiring

Polypropene (PP)

Piping, bottle crates, carpets, car

batteries and ropes

Polyvinyl chloride, (PVC)

Artificial leather, water pipes,

Polystryrene (PS)

Packaging materials, heat insulators,

toys, disposable cups and plates

Perspex

Safety glass, reflectors, traffic signs and

lens

Teflon

Coatings for non-stick frying pans and

electrical insulators.
39

Environmental Problems cause by

Synthetic Polymers
most synthetic polymer are non-biodegradable

which will
not decay easily.

plastic item may cause blockage of drainage system

and rivers.

plastic bottles and container that are not buried

underground will become breeding ground for

mosquitoes.

small plastic items that thrown into the river and sea

may sometimes swallowed by aquatic animals and

may cause choking and dies off.

Open burning of polymers may release harmful

and poisonous gases that will cause air pollution.

40

Methods to Overcome Environmental

Problems cause by Polymers
reduce, reuse and recycle synthetic

polymers
Develop biodegradable polymers

41

(E)
gLaSs
&
cErAmIc

42

Glass
Glass is made from sand.
The major component of glass is
silica (silicon dioxide), SiO2.

Types of glass :
Fused glass
Soda-lime glass
Borosilicate glass
Lead crystal glass

43

(a)

Fused Glass

Chemical composition: SiO2 (99%), B2O3

(1%)

Properties:

Very high softening point (1700C) hence highly

heat-resistant
Transparent to ultra-violet and infrared light.
Difficult to be made into different shapes
Does not crack when temperature changes
Very resistant to chemical attack

Example of Uses
Telescope mirrors, Lenses, optical fibre,
Laboratory glass ware.
44

(b)

Soda-lime Glass

Chemical composition:
Silica, SiO2 (70%), sodium oxide,Na2O (15%), , Calcium
oxide (10%), Others (5%),

Properties:
low softening point (7000C)
Break easily ; cracks easily with sudden
temperature changes.
Easy to make into different shapes
Less resistant to chemical reactions

Examples of Uses
Bottles
Electrical bulbs
bowl
Window panes

45

(c)

Borosilicate Glass

Chemical composition:
Silica, SiO2 (80%), boron oxide,B2O3 (15%), , sodium
oxide, Na2O (3%), aluminium oxide, Al2O3 (5%),

Properties:
Quite high softening point (8000C)
Does not cracks easily with sudden
temperature changes.
Transparent to ultraviolet light
Very resistant to chemical reactions

Examples of Uses
Laboratory apparatus
Cooking utensils
Electrical tubes

46

(d)

Lead Glass

Chemical composition:
Silica, SiO2 (55%), lead oxide,PbO (30%), ,
potassium oxide,K2 O (10%), sodium oxide
Na2O (3%), aluminium oxide, Al2O3 (2%),

Properties:
low softening point (6000C)
high density
high refractive index

Examples of Uses
Decorative items
crystal galss wares
Lens

47

ceramics

48

Ceramics

Ceramic is made from clay that is

dried and then baked in a kiln at high
temperature.

The main consituent of clay is

aluminate, silica and feldspar.

Example :
Kaolinite (a hydrated aluminium
silicate)

Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O
49

Properties of Ceramics

Very hard and strong but brittle

Inert towards chemicals

Very high melting point

Good electrical and heat insulators

Resist compression

50

Compare and contrast between glass and ceramic

Glass
Main components:

silica
4 types of glass:
Fused glass
Soda lime glass
Borosilicate glass
Lead crystal glass
Improved glass:
Photochromic glass

Ceramic

Main components:

aluminosilicate &
feldspar
4 example of ceramics:
tiles
cement
porcelain
bricks
Improved ceramic:
superconductors

4 common properties of glass

and ceramic:
i) Very hard and strong but brittle
ii) Inert towards chemicals
iii) Very high melting point
iv) Good electrical and heat insulators
2 differences between glass and
ceramic:
v) Glass is transparent but ceramic is
opaque
vi) Ceramic can withstand high
temperature than normal glass.

(F)
Composite Material

53

What are composite

materials?

A composite material is a structural

material that is formed by combining
two or more different substances
such as metal, alloys, glass, ceramics
and polymers.
Composite material has properties
that are superior than those of the
original components
Composite materials are more harder,
stronger, lighter(lower density), &
more resistant to heat and
corrosion.
54

Natural Composite Materials

Wood, bone and plywood are

composite materials that occurs
naturally
55

Types of Composite
Materials?

1. Reinforced concrete
2. Specific superconductor
3. Fibre optic
4. Fibre glass
5. Photochromic glass

56

1.

Reinforced Concrete

Concrete is a composite
material which consist of a
mixture of stone, chips
and sand bound together
by cement.
It is strong but brittle
and weak in tension
When concrete is
reinforced with steel wires,
steel bars or any polymer
fibres, it turns to a very
tough material with more
tensile strength.

2.

Superconductors

Superconductors are material that

conducts electricity without any
electrical resistance when they are
cooled to extremely low temperature.
A mixture of copper(II) oxide(CuO),
barium oxide (BaO) and yttrium
oxide (Y2O3) .
- YBa2Cu3O7 (perovskite) is produced.
- can conduct very high current over
long distance without any loss of
energy.
58

 Superconductors are
used in
Bullet train
Magnetic
resonance imaging,
MRI
Magnetic energystorage system
Generators
Transformer
Computer parts
Advantages of the
usage of
superconductors
Low power
High speed
operation

59

3.

Fibre optics

A fibre optics cable

consists of a bundle
of glass or plastic
threads that are
surrounded by a
glass cladding.
Fibre optic is a
composite material
that is able to
transmit data, voice
and images in a
digital format
60

Uses of Fibre optics

To replace copper wire in long
distance telephone line, mobile
phones, video cameras, and to link
computers within Local Area
Network (LAN)
Used in instruments for examining
internal parts of the body
(endoscopes) or inspecting the
interiors of manufactured
structural products.
61

Advantages of Fibre optics

Low material costs

High transmission capacity
Chemically stable
Less interference

62

4. Fibre Glass
Fibre glass is made from mixing
glass and plastic.
Properties of fibre glass
Has high tensile strength
Can be easily coloured
Low in density
Can be made to thin layers but
very strong
Easily moulded and shaped
63

Uses of Fibre Glass

Used to manufacture
Water storage tank
Badminton rackets
Small boats
Television ariel
Helmets etc

64

5.

Photochromic Glass

Glass is transparent and not sensitive to light

intensity.
Silver chloride,AgCl or silver bromide,AgBr is
sensitive to light.
In photochromic glass, silver chloride or silver
bromide and a litter copper(I) chloride is
embedded into the structure of glass.
When it is exposed to light, silver chloride is
converted to silver and the glass is darkened

2AgCl

2Ag + Cl2

When light dims, the glass turns transparent

again because silver is converted back to silver
chloride.

2Ag + Cl2

2AgCl

65

Uses of Photochromic Glass

To make optical lenses
Smart energy efficient
windows in buildings
Information display
panels
Lens in cameras
Optical switches
Light intensity meters

66

THE END

67