Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Ji Vacek
vacekj@kip.zcu.cz
Department of Management, Innovations
and Projects
UWB, Faculty of Economics
Summer semester 2009/10
Lesson 1
Introduction
Basic concepts
Importance of innovations
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL
INNOVATING COMPANIES - 1
Systematic collection of all impulses that
could lead to innovation
Creativity of employees
Ability to evaluate the possibility of the
innovation idea
Good team work
Project-based approach and ability to
manage projects
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL
INNOVATING COMPANIES - 2
Cooperation with external experts
(universities, research laboratories)
Proper rate of risk-taking
Employees motivation (the employees are
willing to improve the product and the
operation of the whole company)
Continued education of employees
Ability to finance the innovation activities
Definition of innovation - 1
Technological innovations are defined as new
products and processes and major technological
modifications to products and processes. An
innovation is considered performed if it is
introduced to the market (product innovation)
or implemented in the production process
(process innovation). Innovation includes
many research, technological, organizational,
financial and commercial activities.
Definition of innovation - 2
R&D represents only one of these activities and
can take place during various stages of the
innovation process. It can play not only the role
of the original source of the innovation ideas but
also the role of problem solution framework,
which can be turned to at any stage of the
implementation.
OECD, Frascati Manual 1992
Oslo Manual
Product innovation
A good or service that is new or significantly improved. This includes
significant improvements in technical specifications, components
and materials, software in the product, user friendliness or other
functional characteristics.
Process innovation
A new or significantly improved production or delivery method. This
includes significant changes in techniques, equipment and/or
software.
Marketing innovation
A new marketing method involving significant changes in product
design or packaging, product placement, product promotion or
pricing.
Organisational innovation
A new organisational method in business practices, workplace
organisation or external relations.
DEGREE OF NOVELTY
Incremental innovations
Radical innovations
Systemic innovations
Classification of innovations
SYSTEM
New series of
cars, planes,
computers, TV
New generation
(MP3 and
download as
substitution of
CD)
Improvement of
components
New
Advanced
components for materials
existing systems improving
component
properties
COMPONENT
INCREMENTAL
do better what
we already do
Steam engine,
ICT,
biotechnology,
nanotechnology
RADICAL
new for the
world
INNOVATION PROCESS
FOCUS
Use the limited resources in the most
effective manner; focus on one of the
following:
Operational output
Top-quality products
Perfect knowledge of customers
RECOMMENDATIONS
Solve the correct problem correctly be
effective and efficient
Manage innovation as a project
Analyze risks
Use models, scenarios, computer
simulation
Study examples of succesful and
unsuccesful innovation projects
WHAT TO DO
1. Start with analysis and study of opportunities.
2. Go among people, ask questions, listen
3. Effective innovations are surprisingly simple.
They must be focused on specific needs and
on specific final products.
4. Effective innovation start on a small scale.
5. A successful innovation always tries to win a
leading position, otherwise you create
opportunities for your competitors.
WHAT TO AVOID
1. Dont try to be too clever. All that is too
sophisticated will almost certainly go
wrong.
2. Dont try to do too many things at once.
Focus on the core of the problem.
3. Dont try to make innovations for the
future but for today. An innovation can
have a long-term impact but there must
be an immediate need for it.
CASE STUDIES
Linet elevice
Hospital products
Hospital beds, intensive care beds, medical
furniture and other equipment increase the
comfort of patients and help the nurses.
Nursing-care products
Nursing beds, bed accessories, bedside
cabinets, mattresses and other furniture.
No comment
1990
2005
TOSHULIN
Development of new machines:
1. Customized the machines developed
for the specific customer according to
its requirements market pull
2. Prototypes there is no specific
customer market push
spouter of
ideas
system designer
finisher of ideas
routine
engineer
attendance
engineer
suggests designs
and problem
solutions without
detailed
consideration of all
possible results and
consequences
elaborates
independently in
details the ideas
which he gets to
elaborate
efficient and
reliable engineer;
however, without
creative approach
performs routine
tasks
[1%]
[5%]
[54%]
[30%]
[10%]
Contipro
Connective
tissue
products
RNDr. Vladimr Velebn, CSc.
Sales in regions
3 pillars of success
http://www.3m.com/us/office/postit/pastpresent/history_ws.html
More about 3M
A Century of Innovation The 3M Story
http://solutions.3m.com/wps/portal/3M/en_US/Ab
out/3M/
Adaptors
Patented technology iGo Technology,
powering of mobile electronic devices using
single (universal) adaptor;
Power Technology Patent Brochure (PDF)
Lesson 2
Disruptive and open
innovations
Innovation categories
sustaining better products that can be
sold with higher margin to demanding
customers; incumbents win
disruptive commercialization of simpler,
more user-friendly products, which are
chepaer and targeted to new or less
demanding customers; new entrants win
Conditions of success - 1
Disruption is successful, as it is easier to
defeat competition that tries to escape
than the competition who fights
Innovation must be disruptive for all
companies in the industry
Ex. Internet for Dell sustaining, they
sold computers formerly by mail, phone,
etc.
Conditions of success - 2
Following the trajectory upwards to market tiers
where it is possible to attain higher margins is
what good manager is expected to do.
Each company therefore prepares its own
disruption. This is the innovators dilemma, but
also the start of innovators solution.
The advice to new, growing firms: focus on
products and markets ignored or neglected ba
incumbents.
OPEN INNOVATION
Chesbrough, H., Open Innovation, Harvard
Business School Publishing, Boston MA, 2003
Closed innovation - requires control
Open innovation
companies use external as well as internal ideas and
both external and internal ways to market
internal ideas can be taken to the market through
external channels to generate additional value
Closed innovation
Open innovation
Closed innovation
Open innovation
Business model
Product architecture
Hierarchy of connections between
disparate functions within a
system
Interdependent Architecture
System
Component
B
Component
A
Component
C
Interdependent Architecture
changing one component requires
changes in all other parts of the system,
because the relationships between the
parts are not clearly understood
can be best managed through internal
processes
Modular Architecture
System
Component
A
Component
B
Component
C
Modular Architecture
components could change without causing any
change in other components
modular design enables to assemble system
more easily, from plug and play components
whose interfaces are well understood
modular architecture makes it easy for many
companies to innovate components without
worrying about possible impact on other parts of
the system
Lesson 3
Assessment of company
innovation potential
B. MARKETING
1. Monitoring of current market trends
2. Evaluation of the market competition
position
3. Customer-orientation
4. Monitoring of customers attitudes to
the company product
5. Market information flow inside the
company
6. Marketing and financial control
C. TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS
1. Future companys competitiveness in the
industry
2. Changes of technologies
3. Collection of impulses for implementation
of technology changes
4. Evaluation of the return on investment
5. Calculation of production costs and their
monitoring
6. Creation of resources for development
D. QUALITY, ENVIRONMENT
1. Monitoring of changes conditioning the quality
management in the company
2. Employees personal contribution to the quality
system
3. External quality audit in the company
4. Monitoring of the environmental impact
5. Impact of quality monitoring on the company
processes
6. Covering of costs resulting from modifications of
standards, regulations and legislation in the
sphere of quality and environment
E. LOGISTICS
1. Organization of purchase and distribution
channels in the company
2. Optimization of the company logistics
3. Information and communication flows between
the company and its partners
4. Flexibility of logistics processes
5. Introduction of innovations in logistics
6. Logistics and financial control
Employees satisfaction
Employees motivation
Management and communication
Conflict resolution
Company information system
Company culture
Lesson 4
STRUCTURING THE NEW PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES
EVALUATION OF THE NEW PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT AND R&D PROJECTS
HOW TO SELECT THE PORTFOLIO
OF NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS
Stage-gate process
R. Cooper, 1960s
phases with inputs and outputs specified
beforehand
gates, in which the gatekeepers decide
about the continuation of the process
Activities were standardized and the
indicators of the process performance
significantly improved.
Evaluation criteria
Operational, realistic, differentiating
Must meet: to kill not well proceeding
projects as soon as possible
Should meet: prioritization, support of
portfolio management
Strategic buckets: resources allocated to
various strategic goals
Interdisciplinary view
Phase 0
results in product concept, including
preliminary identification of customer
requirements, market segments,
competitive position, business opportunity
and compliance with strategy
Nature of Work
Commercialization
Date
Unpredictable or uncertain.
Funding
Variable
Budgeted.
Revenue
Expectations
Activity
Measures of
Progress
Strengthened concepts.
Milestone achievement.
Market
pull
NCD components
Engine: represents management support
Engine powers the five elements of the
NCD model
The engine and the five elements are
placed on top of the influencing factors.
Stage-gate process
IDEA
Gate 1
Idea screening
Gate 2
Detailed evaluation
Gate 3
Decision to develop
Gate 4
Decision to test
Gate 5
Decision to commercialize
Stage 1
Preliminary evaluation
Stage 2
Product definition
Stage 3
Development
Stage 4
Testing
Stage 5
Commercialization
EVALUATION
Project feasibility
The stage-gate model divides the innovation
process into five stages with gates, in which
evaluators decide if to continue or kill the project.
Each phase has its cost, duration and probability
of success. Usually only the last stage generate
profits.
To justify the project development cost, we
should prove at the very beginning its feasibility.
Traditionally we have to show that the project net
present value is greater than zero, i.e. that the
whole project, taking into account the time value
of the money, will generate net profit.
DCF methods
The generally accepted method of evaluation of
investment, is based on discounted cash flows
(DCF).
The method is successfully used for investment
projects with low level of uncertainty and
duration from several months up to few years.
In many cases it is not suited to long-term NPD
and R&D projects, as it penalizes projects with
high risk and potentially valuable projects can be
rejected or terminated.
Success
pC
Success
pd
YES
ECV
YES
PV
Commercialization
Development
NO
D
NO
Failure
Failure
ECV
pd
pc
D
C
PV
Example
The first stage (1 year): laboratory tests; success
probability 50%.
The second stage (2 years): field tests; success
probability 75%.
If tests are successful, the necessary investment into the
technology is $5M, expected earnings $8M project net
present value $3M.
Financial data are discounted, assuming the weighted
capital costs WACC = 12%, risk-free discount rate 5%.
Development costs and specific project risk are high
resulting ECV negative (-$109 000)
according to this criterion, project should be rejected.
= 37,5%
x 0,706M
=
Stage
3 Year
4
NPV
= $3,0 M
0,265M
DCF = $1,907M
Stage 2 Year 2
Cost = $0,5 M
DCF = -$0,399M
Stage 1 Year 1
Cost = $0,5 M
DCF = -$0,446M
Stage 2 Year 3
Cost = $0,5 M
DCF = -$0,356M
12,5% x (-1,201M) =
-0,150M
25%
Stop
50%
50%
75%
Stop
50% x (-0,446M) =
-0,223M
ccording to [Boer 2003]
Real options
The concept of real options is closely related to financial
options that found their place in financial markets in
recent decades. Real options relate to company
opportunities and emphasize the basic idea that risk can
bring the competitive advantage and as such it should be
rewarded.
The application of the real options theory is briefly
described in [Boer 2003], the related website contains
further information and references to more detailed
resources. Here we will give only a brief account of basic
concepts and terminology.
Specific risk
Specific for the partial situation
At lest partly under your control (e.g. risk of a fire or risk
of project failure)
Can be diversified - we can use insurance to share fire
risk and maintain the diversified project portfolio to
protect against the risk of project failure
Therefore the market does not pay any premium for
specific risks
Specific risk can be often characterized by its probability.
Better management of specific risk can help us to
achieve the competitive advantage.
Market risk
Is not under your control
Cannot be diversified. The pharmaceutical
company, as a part of health care sector, can do
little to diversify the market risk.
Traditionally, market risk increases the capital
expenses and therefore decreases the project
value.
However, the situation is different with options:
here the higher market risk, expressed as
volatility, increases the option value, which can
be quantified using the Black-Scholes algorithm,
well known from financial options.
Volatility
Quantifies the rate of change of market value of the
underlying asset, i.e. the asset to its ownership we are
entitled by buying the option (technology, database of
customers ).
Is usually specific for the industry and can be estimated
on the basis of information available from e.g. stock
market, industry statistics, etc.
The higher the volatility, the more advantageous is to
hold the respective option.
The higher volatility means the higher potential of both
the increase and decrease of the related asset price. As
the option holder we can fully exploit the increase, while
in the case of decrease we do not realize the option and
the maximum loss is limited by the option cost.
Application
Boer [Boer 2003] applies the real option model (OPT)
with volatility equal to 50% to the example from Fig. 3
He shows that using this method the project value is
$0,171M, i.e. it is positive and the project is feasible.
The difference in project value assessed by ECV and
OPT models is $0,279M, what is enough to justify the
project. The difference is caused by market volatility.
Boer also proves that in case of the zero market risk, i.e.
the zero volatility, both methods give the same result.
The method of real options brings the most significant
effect to projects with high level of risk having
slightly negative net present value determined by
ECV or other models based on the discounted cash flow.
Conclusion
Illustration of the often neglected side of the new
product development and R&D projects.
The researchers, engineers, designers must
work together with investors to determine before
the project launch and in the gates how
efficiently the capital invested into the effort is
used.
It is not an easy task; however, we hope that we
succeeded to persuade the auditorium that this
important task cannot be avoided.
References
[Boer 2003]
BOER F.P. Risk-adjusted Valuation of
R&D Projects, online, http://www.tigerscientific.com
[Cooper 2001]
COOPER R.G., EDGET S.J.,
KLEINSCHMIDT E.J. Portfolio Management for New
Products, Basic Books, 2001, ISBN 0-7382-0514-1
[Cooper 2005]
COOPER R.G. Product Leadership,
Basic Books, 2005, ISBN 0-465-01433-X
[Vacek 2006] Vacek J. Structuring the new product
development processes, in AEDS 2006 Proceedings,
pp. xx, University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, 2006, ISBN
Outline
31.10.-1.11.2008
111
Portfolio management
31.10.-1.11.2008
112
No portfolio management
means
Immediate
result
Increased time to
market
Higher failure rates
Many failures
31.10.-1.11.2008
113
Maximization of value
Balance
3.
Strategic alignment
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114
Goal 1
Maximizing the portfolio value
31.10.-1.11.2008
115
Project
NPV
Remaining
resource
requirements
52,0
9,5
5,5
3,2
30,0
3,1
9,7
0,3
8,6
2,1
4,1
1,4
42,0
3,8
11,1
2,5
48,5
7,0
6,9
1,3
43,8
5,0
8,8
1,5
37,5
8,3
4,5
3,8
3,0
1,0
3,0
0,7
9,5
2,5
3,8
0,5
6,2
0,8
7,8
0,8
4,5
1,4
3,2
1,2
55,0
5,0
11,0
5,0
31.10.-1.11.2008
Bang-forbuck
index
Immediate
resource
requirements
116
NPV
Remaining
resource
requireme
nts
42,0
3,8
11,1
2,5
2,5
55,0
5,0
11,0
5,0
7,5
30,0
3,1
9,7
0,3
7,8
43,8
5,0
8,8
1,5
9,3
6,2
0,8
7,8
0,8
10,1
48,5
7,0
6,9
1,3
11,4
52,0
9,5
5,5
3,2
14,6
37,5
8,3
4,5
3,8
18,4
8,6
2,1
4,1
1,4
19,8
9,5
2,5
3,8
0,5
20,3
4,5
1,4
3,2
1,2
21,5
3,0
1,0
3,0
0,7
22,2
31.10.-1.11.2008
Bang-forbuck
index
Cumulative
Immediate
immediate
resource
resource
requirements
requirements
117
Probability of
commercial
success
Development
cost*
Commercializat
ion cost*
Project
PV
30,00
0,80
0,50
3,00
5,00
63,75
0,50
0,80
5,00
2,00 19,50
9,62
0,75
0,75
2,00
1,00
2,10
3,00
1,00
1,00
1,00
0,50
1,50
50,00
0,60
0,75
5,00
3,00 15,70
66,25
0,50
0,80
10,00
2,00 15,50
31.10.-1.11.2008
ECV
5,00
118
ECV
Cumulative
development costs
ECV/D
Adjusted cumulative
development costs
19,50
3,90
5,00
5,00
15,70
3,14
10,00
10,00
5,00
1,67
13,00
13,00
15,50
1,55
(23,00)
1,50
1,50
24,00
14,00
2,10
1,05
26,00
16,00
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119
31.10.-1.11.2008
Cumulative
development
costs
ECV
19,50
5,00
15,70
10,00
15,50
20,00
5,00
23,00
2,10
25,00
1,50
26,00
120
31.10.-1.11.2008
121
IRR
NPV
SI
PTS
20%
10
80%
15%
70%
10%
90%
17%
12
65%
12%
20
90%
22%
85%
31.10.-1.11.2008
122
Project ranking
Project ranking procedure is the following
calculate adjusted values of IRR and NPV
multiply them by PTS.
rank projects according to adjusted values of
IRR and NPV and according to SI.
calculate the average value of those three
rankings and use it for final ranking
31.10.-1.11.2008
123
Ranking by
NPV*PT
S
SI
Ranking by
SI
Avg.
Final
Project
IRR * PTS
Ranking by
IPR*PTS
16,0%
1,67
10,5%
1,4
5,00
9,0%
4,5
4,67
11,1%
7,8
3,33
10,8%
18
2,33
18,7%
5,1
3,67
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124
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125
Scoring models
Give very good results.
Important: selection of criteria that really separate the
winners from the losers. Such criteria must be based on
the analyses of your own company and other companies
in the same industry. You must develop the expert base
to be used in project valuation.
One of the models described in [Cooper 2001] uses five
main factors:
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126
Goal 2: Balance
In many cases, the project portfolio is not
balanced; often it contains too many small
projects and not enough of radical, visionary but
highly risky projects necessary to maintain the
company competitiveness.
Suitable tools for creation of the balanced
portfolio are bubble diagrams; most frequently
used diagram is the risk reward bubble
diagram, which is used by 44 % companies
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127
WHITE
ELEPHANTS
31.10.-1.11.2008
PEARLS
BREAD &
BUTTER
128
Diagram quadrants
Pearls: potential star projects: high probability of
success, high expected reward. We would like many of
such projects.
Oysters: highly speculative projects: low probability of
success, high expected reward. Here the breakthroughs
pave the way for solid payoffs.
Bread and butter: simple projects, high probability of
success, low expected reward. Often too many of them
in the portfolio, consuming substantial ratio of resources.
White elephants: low probability of success, low
expected reward; projects that are difficult to kill, often
from personal reasons.
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129
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130
Top-down approach
from the strategy formulation (using
principles, methods and procedures of
strategic management, see e.g. [Grant
2008]). Objectives for new products are
often stated in terms of ratio or growth of
turnover, profit, market share, etc. during
several (usually 3-5) years.
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131
Technology roadmaps
31.10.-1.11.2008
132
Strategic buckets
31.10.-1.11.2008
133
Bottom-up
and combined approaches
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134
References
31.10.-1.11.2008
135
Lesson 5
Innovation impulses
Customers
Suppliers
Competitors
Consultants, R&D
institutions
Schools, universities
Professional publications,
Internet
Exhibitions, fairs,
specialized seminars and
conferences
Advertising agencies
Investors
Media
Authorized testing
laboratories, certification
agencies
State institutions, public
sector
Legislation
Globalization
unexpected event
contradiction
change of work process
change in the structure of industry or market
EXTERNAL
Demographic changes
Changes in the world view
New knowledge
1. Unexpected event
Unexpected success
1.
2.
3.
4.
Unexpected failure
Unexpected external event
2. Contradiction
Non-compliance with economic reality
Contradiction between reality and
anticipations about it
Contradiction between the anticipated and
real behavior of customers and their
values
3. Change of process
realize the necessity of change, identify
the weak point of the chain
be convinced that if something does not
work the way it should, then it is
necessary to attempt a change
the solution must be convenient for those
who will implement it. It must place
moderate and feasible requirements
5. Demography
easiest to describe and to predict
influence what will be bought, who and in
which amounts will purchase
6. Change of attitudes
change in the approach to health: healthcare, food, spending the leisure time
upper-middle class: a chance to offer
non-standard services at non-standard
prices
increasing migration, feminism,
regionalism etc
Timing is essential - to be the first
7. New knowledge
Based on convergence or synergy of various
kinds of knowledge, their success requires, high
rate of risk
Thorough analysis of all factors. identify the missing
elements of the chain and possibilities of their
supplementing or substitution;
Focus on winning the strategic position at the market.
the second chance usually does not come;
Entrepreneurial management style. Quality is not what
is technically perfect but what adds the product its
value for the end user
Suppliers
Competitors
INTERNAL IMPULSES
usually combined with external sources
supported by
creative techniques
innovation tools
REGISTER OF IMPULSES
Lesson 6
Innovation management tools
INNOMAT
http://www.inno-pro.com/aainn0.htm
BENCHMARKING
BRAINSTORMING
REENGINEERING
CHANGE MANAGEMENT
SPECIFIC TECHNIQUE
Making time
SWOT analysis
Developing a plan
Learning
Monitoring effectiveness
INNOVATION MANAGEMENT TOOLS
http://www.wiley.co.uk/innovate/website/pages/atoz/atoz.htm
TECHNOLOGY AUDIT
TECHNOLOGY FORECAST
VALUE ANALYSIS
DESIGN FOR X
<>
X - examples
Design for Manufacturing Design for Environment
and Assembly (DFMA)
(DFE)
Design for Dimensional
Control (DDC)
Design for
Electromagnetic
Compatibility
QUALITY FUNCTION
DEPLOYMENT
House of Quality
Interrelationships
Technical Features
Voice of
the
Customer
Relationship
between Customer
Desired Traits and
Technical Features
Importance of
Technical Features
Importance Assessment
of Traits to of
Customer
Competition
House of Quality:
Steps for Generation
1. Identify Customer Attributes
2. Identify Supporting Technical Characteristics
3. Correlate Customer Attributes with Supporting Technical
Features
4. Assign Priorities to Customer Requirements and Technical
Features
5. Evaluate Competitors Stances and Products
6. Identify Technical Characteristics to Deploy in the Final
Product Design
PEER EVALUATION
TEAM BUILDING
ISO 9000
ISO14000
refers to procedures for ensuring sustainable and
environmentally friendly operations
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
TOTAL PRODUCTIVE
MAINTENANCE
LEAN THINKING
CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
INNOSKILLS
FASTER
Lesson 7
CREATIVITY
BASICS & TECHNIQUES
creativity results:
in producing or bringing about something
partly or wholly new;
in investing an existing object with new
properties or characteristics;
in imagining new possibilities that were not
conceived of before;
and in seeing or performing something in a
manner different from what was thought
possible or normal previously.
Quotations on serendipity
"In the field of observation, chance favors only the prepared mind." Louis
Pasteur
"Serendipity. Look for something, find something else, and realize that what
you've found is more suited to your needs than what you thought you were
looking for." Lawrence Block
"The most exciting phrase to hear in science, the one that heralds new
discoveries, is not 'Eureka!', but 'That's funny '" Isaac Asimov
"In reality, serendipity accounts for one percent of the blessings we receive in
life, work and love. The other 99 percent is due to our efforts." Peter
McWilliams
"Serendipity is looking in a haystack for a needle and discovering a farmer's
daughter." Julius Comroe Jr.
"Serendipity is putting a quarter in the gumball machine and having three
pieces come rattling out instead of oneall red." Peter H. Reynolds
"--- you don't reach Serendib by plotting a course for it. You have to set out in
good faith for elsewhere and lose your bearings ... serendipitously." John
Barth, The Last Voyage of Somebody the Sailor
"Serendipity is the art of making an unsought finding." Pek van Andel (1994)
source: wikipedia
BASIC CONCEPTS
Creative thinking represents a combination
of logic and intuitive approaches
Being creative means dealing with the aspects
and possibilities of today and tomorrow
That requires a person to be open to everything
new, do not stick to things that we are all used
to, do not adhere to yesterday so much
Creativity does not mean dreaming, it means
productive managing of specific tasks.
Only a creative approach to the problem solution
can be successful.
Creativity in organizations
Amabile: to enhance creativity in business,
three components are needed:
Expertise (technical, procedural & intellectual
knowledge),
Creative thinking skills (how flexibly and imaginatively
people approach problems),
and Motivation (especially intrinsic motivation).
Barriers to creativity - 1
The value of getting things right time can induce a fear of
mistakes and experimentation.
So can a blame culture where people become afraid of
making mistakes.
Managers who are not as secure as they should be can
resist or block ideas that are not their own or which they
see as threatening.
A culture that over emphasizes cost containment,
processes, consistency or efficiency.
A reward system that too exclusively celebrates getting
things done fast with no mistakes.
A general fear of risk taking, wanting to analyze
everything to death, to wait and see what others do in the
market before acting.
Barriers to creativity - 2
A lack of explicit funding for experimentation.
A strict requirement to demonstrate the value of an idea
before it has a chance to prove itself.
A tendency to shoot down novel ideas as a way of
scoring points.
An over allegiance to past successes, proven experience
and tried and tested methods.
A suspicion of novelty, a fear of the unproven.
A resistance to learning from mistakes or trial and error,
a tendency to blame external factors or other people for
failures rather than to learn from them.
Short termism - a drive to meet short term financial goals
rather than to invest in the future.
Barriers to creativity - 3
http://members.optusnet.com.au/~charles
57/Creative/Basics/obstacles.htm
CREATIVITY STIMULATION
Fostering creativity
Creative Process
Problem Definition - including problem analysis,
redefinition, and all aspects associated with defining the
problem clearly.
Idea Generation - The divergent process of coming up
with ideas.
Idea Selection - The convergent process of reducing all
the many ideas into realistic solutions
Idea Implementation - Turning the refined ideas in reality.
Processes - Schemes and techniques which look at the
overall process from start to finish (or at least 3 of the
above 4 areas)..
http://www.mycoted.com/Category:Creativity_Techniques
Brain hemispheres
Left brain functions
sequential
simultaneous
analytical
holistic
verbal
imagistic
logical
intuitive
mathematics: perception of
counting/measurement
mathematics: perception of
shapes/motions
CREATIVITY TECHNIQUES
Inspirational questions - 1
Inspirational questions - 2
Who else has solved this problem?
What similar area of expertise might have solved this
problem?
Is there anyone else in the company who knows how to
solve this?
What else could we use to solve the problem?
Where else might this problem have been solved?
What other companies might know how to solve this?
What similar problems have been solved, and how?
What other industries face the same problem and what
do they do about it?
Inspirational questions - 3
Inspirational questions - 4
What would my perfect solution be?
What effect would my ideal solution have?
What if money/morals/laws did not matter
at all?
What would I do if I had unlimited power
and resources?
What would my ideal solution look like?
Source:Wikipedia
CPS (OFPISA)
six stage process, each with a divergent and a
convergent phase.
1. Objective Finding (or Mess Finding): Sensitise yourself for
issues that need to be tackled.
2. Fact Finding: Gather information about the problem.
3. Problem Finding: convert a fuzzy statement of the problem into
a broad statement more suitable for idea finding.
4. Idea Finding: generate as many ideas as possible
5. Solution finding: Generate and select obvious evaluation criteria
and develop the short-listed ideas from Idea Finding as much as
possible in the light of these criteria. Then choose the best of
these improved ideas for further development
6. Acceptance finding: How can the suggestion you have just
selected be made up to standard and put into practice?
Synectics
problem solving approach that stimulates thought
processes of which the subject is generally unaware.
developed by William Gordon,
central principle: "Trust things that are alien, and alienate
things that are trusted."
Encourages
fundamental problem-analysis and, on the other hand,
the alienation of the original problem through the
creation of analogies
It is thus possible for new and surprising solutions to
emerge.
Synectics is more demanding of the subject than
brainstorming, as the many steps involved mean that the
process is more complicated and requires more time and
effort.
Synectics - steps
Lateral thinking
de Bono
methods of thinking concerned with changing concepts
and perception; reasoning that is not immediately
obvious, ideas that may not be obtainable by using only
traditional step-by-step logic
shifting of thinking patterns, away from entrenched or
predictable thinking to new or unexpected ideas.
A new idea that is the result of lateral thinking is not
always a helpful one, but when a good idea is
discovered in this way it is usually obvious in hindsight,
which is a feature lateral thinking shares with a joke
We may need to solve some problems not by removing
the cause but by designing the way forward even if the
cause remains in place
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_thinking
Example - meeting
The meeting may start with everyone assuming the Blue
hat to discuss how the meeting will be conducted and to
develop the goals and objectives.
The discussion may then move to Red hat thinking in
order to collect opinions and reactions to the problem.
This phase may also be used to develop constraints for
the actual solution such as who will be affected by the
problem and/or solutions.
Next the discussion may move to the (Yellow then)
Green hat in order to generate ideas and possible
solutions.
Next the discussion may move between White hat
thinking as part of developing information and
Black hat thinking to develop criticisms of the solution
set.
TRIZ, ARIZ
(Teoriya Resheniya
Izobretatelskikh Zadatch) = Theory of
inventive problem solving
Inventing is the removal of a technical
contradiction with the help of certain
principles
Contradictions
Inventive problems stem from contradictions (one of the
basic TRIZ concepts) between two or more elements,
such as, "If we want more acceleration, we need a larger
engine; but that will increase the cost of the car," that is,
more of something desirable also brings more of
something less desirable, or less of something else also
desirable. These are called Technical Contradictions.
Physical or inherent contradictions: More of one thing
and less of another may be needed. For instance, a
higher temperature may be needed to melt a compound
more rapidly, but a lower temperature may be needed to
achieve a homogeneous mixture.
Matrix of Contradictions
40 inventive principles
rows: 39 system features that one typically
wants to improve, such as speed, weight,
accuracy of measurement and so on.
columns: typical undesired results.
matrix cell: points to principles that have
been most frequently used in patents in
order to resolve the contradiction.
Morphological analysis
designed for multi-dimensional, nonquantifiable problems where causal
modeling and simulation do not function
well or at all
Fritz Zwicky (1967, 1969) - exploring all
the possible solutions to a multidimensional, non-quantified problem
complex
transmission
final storage
kinetic
kinetic
electrical E
electrical E
electrical E
chemical C
chemical C
chemical C
thermal
thermal
thermal
nuclear -
nuclear -
nuclear -
Example 1 - continued
K->E->C: hydroelectric generation which
is then stored in a battery.
C->T->K: internal combustion engine
(chemical energy transformed into thermal
energy) leading to energy being stored in
a flywheel.
E->C->T: common refrigerator
Parameter values
separated
media
solid /
solid
solid /
fluid
solid /
gas
fluid /
fluid
fluid /
gas
level of
separation
total
partial
protection
against
gravitation
mechanical
forces
heat
radiation
sound
combination
with
paper
plastic
wood
paint
nothing
gas /
gas
16 dots, 6 lines
http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/articles/20041027/PuzzleZone.asp
Puzzle Archive
http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/pages/
zonearchive.asp?type=1
Lesson 8
TEAM WORK
TEAM DEFINITION
group of people whose individual
members share a common goal
their expert skills and personal abilities are
complementary
its members work activities and skills are
purposefully and smoothly linked together.
TEAM EFFECTIVENESS
dynamic balance among
Necessity to perform a joint task
Individual needs of team members
Necessity to maintain a team
TEAM DEVELOPMENT
Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing
Dissolving
Initiator
Company employee
Chairman
Forming person
Operational employee
Coordinator
Resource researcher
Observer
Team worker
Finisher
Orienting member
Energy supplier
Recorder
Harmonizer
Group cohesion
(+) larger degree of cooperation, better
communication, higher resistance against
frustration, lower fluctuation and absences,
lower level of tolerance towards lazy
people
(-) difficult for new members, limited
possibility to enforce new ideas, opposition
against changes in work procedures, often
overprotective against outsiders
Defines
Everything if possible
Vision
Prefers
Conformity
Individuality, mutuality
Believes in
As much as possible
As necessity
Anticipates
Peoples worries of
responsibility
Independence and
responsibility of people
Lesson 9
DECISION MAKING
DECISION PROCESS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Bounded rationality
limits not optimum, but satisfactory solution
Suboptimization
departmentalization
MODELS
Model: abstraction of reality, adequately
portrays real-life phenomena
Physical
Schematic
Mathematical
Computer
USE OF MODELS
1.
2.
3.
4.
LIMITATIONS OF MODELS
1. Overemphasis of quantitative over
qualitative information
2. Incorrect application, misinterpretation of
results
3. Highly sophisticated models in hands of
users who cannot fully comprehend the
conditions and limitations of the model
use
4. Model building as an end to itself
QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES
Linear programming
Queing techniques
Inventory models
Project models (PERT, CPM, TOC)
Forecasting models
Statistical models
Quantitative methods are typically more difficult to
understand without a fair amount of explanation
and demonstration
TRADE-OFFS
List advantages and and disadvantages of
opposing courses of action to gain better
understanding of the consequences of
potential decisions.
Example quality control
advantages
disadvantages
Fewer defectives
slipping through by
increasing inspections
Increase in costs
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
How sensitive the solution is to a change
in one or more parameters
Example: = (A2 A1) / 0,5*(A2 + A1)
x=5
k=1
k=2
A = kx + 4000
4005
4010
0,03%
10,87%
B = kx + 4
DECISION ENVIRONMNENTS
CERTAINTY relevant parameters have
known values
RISK certain parameters have
probabilistic outcomes
UNCERTAINTY it is impossible to
assess the likelihood of various possible
outcomes
DECISION THEORY
1. Identify possible future conditions states of
nature
2. Develop a list of possible alternatives
3. Determine or estimate payoff associated with
each alternative for every possible state of
nature
4. Estimate the likelihood of every possible state
of nature (if possible)
5. Evaluate alternatives according to decision
criterion and select best alternative
PAYOFF TABLE
Possible future demand
Alternatives
facility size
low
moderate
high
Small
10
10
10
Medium
12
12
Large
-4
16
Highest payoff
Best alternative
Low
10
small
Moderate
12
medium
High
16
large
small
medium
large
10
-4
small
medium
large
10
10,33
4,67
Minimax regret:
Opportunity loss, regret: subtract every payoff in a
column from the largest positive payoff in that column
Alternative
low
regrets
moderate
Small
Medium
Large
0
3
14
2
0
10
high
worst
6
4
0
6
4
14
probability
EV
Small
0,30
10
Medium
0,50
10.5
Large
0,20
DECISION TREES
DECISION TREES
Particularly useful for situations that
involve sequential decisions
Nodes:
decision points
chance events
Branches leaving
alternatives
states of nature
EXPECTED VALUE
OF PERFECT INFORMATION (EVPI)
Option: postpone a decision, purchase
additional information
Question: is the cost of the option less than the
expected gain?
EVPI = expected payoff under certainty expected payoff under risk
upper limit decision maker should be willing to spend to
obtain perfect information
EVPI - example
Demand
Best payoff
probability
Low
10
0,30
Moderate
12
0,50
High
16
0,20
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
State of nature
Alternative
#1
#2
12
16
12
Sensitivity Analysis
LP - ASSUMPTIONS
Linearity (objective function &constraints)
Divisibility (non-integer values of variables
acceptable)
Certainty (values of parameters known,
constatnt
Non-negativity (negative values of
variables unacceptable)
LP EXAMPLE 1
Decision variables: x1, x2, x3 quantities of
products to produce
Maximize profit
5 x1 + 8 x2 + 4 x3
Subject to constraints:
Labor
Material
Product 1
Non-negativity
2 x1 + 4 x2 + 3 x3 250 hours
7 x1 + 6 x2 + 5 x3 100 pounds
x1
10 units
x1, x2, x3
LP solution 1
decision variables
X1
10
X2
X3
objective function
P
90
constraints
1
40
250
100
100
10
10
LP Graphical method
For two-variable problem, graphical
method can be used
Example:
Minimize
Subject to
Solution:
P = 8x + 12y
5x + 2y 20
4x + 3y 24
y2
x, y 0
x = 4,5, y = 2, P = 60
LP Graphical method
Lesson 10
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Conflict management
Conflict cannot always be avoided, but it can be
managed
Sources of conflicts:
Conflict consequences
Positive:
Competition tends to enhance the general welfare, if
the conflict level is not too high
Loyalty increases when people unite against a
common foe
If problems are recognized, solutions may be
forthcoming
Negative:
Lesson 11
COMPANY INNOVATION
CULTURE
Successful companies address the
human needs and give them priority
Thomas J. Peters, Robert H.Waterman
COMPANY CULTURE
Organization culture: a pattern of ideas,
opinions and attitudes that majority of
people in the company understands,
respects, acknowledges, adopts and
relates to them.
Influences the companys economic
success and competitiveness
Behavior standards
Key values
Management and leadership style
Roles
Organizational structure and diversification
Influenced by:
Organizations strategy
Organizations system
Level of cooperation between the individual organization
structures
Employees abilities
MANAGEMENT STYLES
shift from directive to participative style of
management
4 basic management styles:
Exploiting authoritative
Benevolent authoritative
Consultative
Participative
Motivation /
performance cycle
(MPC)
MPC- continued
5. The individual is motivated to expend
effort and does so
6. Does the individual have appropriate training,
abilities, and tools, and know the objective?
7. Performance
MPC- continued
9. Does the individual reassess the
situation?
10. Will the individual be motivated in the
same way?
Note:
normal individual
Need satisfiers
Frederick A. Herzberg
Hygiene factors dissatisfiers, extrinsic
(pay, supervision)
Motivators satisfiers, intrinsic
(achievement, recognition for
performance)
Maslow
Herzberg
Self-actualization
Esteem
Advancement, recognition,
status
Social
Interpersonal relations
Physiological
Lesson 12
INNOVATION PROGRAMS
AND EDUCATION
Paradigm shifts
Information and knowledge society
Lifelong learning
Lean companies, networking
Information and communication
technologies (ICT)
e-business, e-commerce, e-learning, egovernment, e-, m-
Learning organization
The education that does not follow the specific
objective and does not improve the results is a
luxury the company cannot afford.
Learning has been effective if a person knows
something he has not known earlier and he can do
something what he has not been able to do earlier
The mission of the managerial education is the
development of the competencies and performance
of managers
Learn by doing - follow what your more experienced
colleagues (but experiment as well)
KEY COMPETENCIES
technical qualification - technical knowledge,
skill, talent and attitudes related technologic,
economic, financial, structural and procedural
aspects of work
Soft skills, behavior and acting - related to work
with people, influencing the communication and
dealing with individuals and groups both within
and outside the company.
Lesson 13
COURSE CONCLUSION
TERM PAPER PRESENTATIONS
Good luck
Company strategy
Collection of innovation impulses
Setting of priorities
Looking for innovation ideas and their
discussion
Feasibility study
Decision about project preparation
Project preparation
Project implementation
Monitoring of innovation performance
PROCESS MAP
MARKET
Idea
Strategy
Strategy
development
development
Development
Production
Product
Product
development
development
Design
Design
modification
modification
according
according++
customers
customers
requirements
requirements
Product
Product
delivery
delivery