Is a fact we unconsciously use grammar all the time when we

use language for speaking, listening, reading and writing, and

if we want to improve our English language abilities, there is
no escape from addressing grammar issues. Grammar is a
very wide topic, but not so difficult to learn if you really like it.
So, what its grammar? At its core, the term grammar refers to
either the inherent structure of words and sentences
(morphology and syntax respectively) in a language; or to the
study and description of this structure (what we learn from the
books). Other approaches include more topics like orthography
(spelling, punctuation and capitalization), semantics (word
meanings), phonetics and
phonology (sounds) and pragmatics (language
use in context). In this portfolio we are going to give you a
concrete review of the most important grammar topics,
and we are going to keep it simple, direct and to
the point.. We hope you like it, and we hope this
could be useful and valuable for you..

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Ends with
s, x,
ch or sh

Ends with
consonant +
y

Most nouns in
English have both
singular and plural
forms, and the
plural is usually
formed by adding "
e singular.
th
to
"
s
Add -es
boss ->
bosses
tax -> taxes
bush ->
bushes

Change y
to i then
add es

Baby ->
babies
Candy ->
candies
Curry ->
curries

Although most
nouns have plurals
formed according to
regular rules some
l,
nouns have unusua
.
or irregular plurals
Ends with -fe

Change f to
v then
Add s

knife -> knives

life -> lives
wife -> wives

Ends with -f

Change f to
v then
Add es

half -> halves

wolf -> wolves
loaf -> loaves

Ends with -o

Add es

potato ->
potatoes
tomato ->
tomatoes
volcano ->
volcanoes

Proper Nouns
Proper nouns name specific
people, places, things, or
ideas.

Common Nouns
Common nouns are the
opposite of proper
nouns. They are generic
nouns. They name
people, places, things or
ideas that are not
specific.
Examples:
woman, city, dog, shoe
Since these nouns are
not naming anything
specific, they do not

Examples:
Karla,
Loany,
Rosa,
George, Robert.
Since these nouns are
naming
specific
things,
they always begin with a
capital letter.
Sometimes, they contain
two or more important
words.
Examples:
Britney
Spears,
Central
Park Zoo, Pacific Ocean.
If this is the case, both
important
words
are

Nouns name people,

places, and things.
Collective nouns, a
special class, name
groups [things]
composed of members
[usually people].
Examples:
army, audience, board,
cabinet, class,
committee, company,
corporation, council,

One class of nouns is

concrete. You can
experience this group of
nouns with your five senses:
you see them, hear them,
smell them, taste them, and
feel them.
Examples:
Student, fire fighter, dog,
pencil, computer, ice cream
etc.
Not all nouns are concrete.
A second class of nouns is
abstract. You cannot
experience abstract nouns
with your senses.

The possessive form of a noun is used to show ownership. A

noun is possessive if a phrase can be changed to say that an
item or idea belongs to someone or something.
Example:
The new car belongs to Peter. -> Peters car is new.
The possessive noun always comes before what it owns or
has.
How can we form the possessive of singular nouns?
The possessive of singular nouns (a name, place, thing or
idea) is formed by adding an apostrophe plus an s.
Examples:
Monicas house -> The house belongs to Monica.
Flowers petals -> The flower has petals.

How to count non-counts

nouns..
Although non-count nouns
are supposed to be
uncountable, we sometimes
need to count them. At least,
we sometimes need to
explain the quantity of
something which is noncount. We can do this by
using a measurement word,
or counter, like this:
-a bar of chocolate
-two loaves of bread
-three slices of meat

Common
Measurement
words

Nouns used with it

Bar

Chocolate
Soap

Cube

Sugar
Ice

Game

Tennis
Soccer
Cards

Glass

Wine
Beer
Water
Juice

Piece

Advice
Information
Baggage
Clothing
Furniture
Homework
Machinery

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Adjectives can be
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general rule for the position of each type
adjective, these are:

Positio 1st
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2nd

3rd

4th

5th

6th

7th

8th

Opinio
n

Size

Age

Shape

Color

Material

Origin

Purpose

Nice

Small

Old

Square

Black

Plastic

British

Racing

Ugly

Big

New

Circular

Blue

Cotton

America
n

Running

A compound adjective is formed when two

or more adjectives work together to modify
the same noun. These terms should be
hyphenated to avoid confusion or ambiguity.
Example: The black-and-blue mark
suggested that he had been involved in an
altercation.

Adjectives of Quantity answer the

question How much?
Examples : Some, Little, Any, Enough

A derived adjective is an adjective

derived from a noun or verb. Example:
dreamy from dream, sterilized from
sterilize
This form of adjective is used in a
sentence before a noun to indicate
possession. For instance, in the
sentence, Do not touch my diary. It is
personal., the word my inserted
just in front of the noun diary is the
adjective. Few other examples of
possessive adjectives are your,
his,
her,adjective
our, their,
etc.
A
superlative
expresses
the extreme
or highest degree of a quality. We use a
superlative adjective to describe the
extreme quality of one thing in a group of
things. Examples: large ->largest; big ->
biggest; fat -> fattest.
Comparative adjectives are used to
compare the difference between 2 nouns,
or a collective noun .

This form of adjective is used to

demonstrate or indicate certain things.
For instance, in the sentence, Parents
of only those students, who have not
managed to pass in all subjects, will have
to come for tomorrows parents-teachers
meeting. The word those indicates a
particular lot of students who have failed
in their test. Placed before the noun
students, this is a form of
demonstrative adjective. Other such
adjectives are that, these, this,
Interrogative
Adjectives are used to
etc.

ask questions about a noun.

Examples : What, Which, Whose

While demonstrative adjectives point out

specific things, indefinite adjectives do not
indicate anything specific. Indefinite
adjectives are formed from indefinite
pronouns and the most common ones
among them are any, many, few,
several, etc. In the sentence, Several
soldiers died in the Pacific War., the word
several placed just before the noun

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ADVERBS OF TIME
These answer the
question when?
This adverb usually
comes either at the
very beginning of the
sentence or at the
end.
Examples:
-Afterwards we
decided to go by car.
-I've done that
journey before.
-We havent started
yet.
-She is still a
student.

ADVERBS OF PLACE
These answer the
question where?
This adverb usually
comes after the
object, otherwise
after the verb:
Examples:
-We saw you there.
-We were sitting
here.
-We looked
everywhere.
-Have you seen my
glasses anywhere?
-I'm sure I left them
somewhere.

ADVERBS OF MANNER
These answer the
question how?
This adverb usually
comes after the
direct object or if
there is no direct
object, after the verb:
Examples:
-She speaks Italian
beautifully.
-He works well.
-You must drive your
car carefully.
-Eat quietly.

ADVERBS OF DEGREE
These answer the
question to what
extent?
This adverb can modify
an adverb or an
adjective and comes
before the word it
modifies:
Examples:
-The bottle is almost full,
nearly empty.
-They should be able to
pass their exams quite
easily.
The following adverbs of
degree can also modify
verbs:
almost, nearly, quite,
hardly, scarcely, barely,

ADVERBS OF
FREQUENCY
These answer the
question how many
times?
This adverb comes after
the verb 'to be':
Examples:
-She is always honest.
Comes before simple
tenses of all other
verbs:
-They sometimes spend
the whole of Saturday
fishing.
Comes after the first
auxiliary in a tense
consisting of more than
one verb:
-I have often wondered
how they did that.
I can sometimes go
without food for days.

AFFIRMATIVE
ADVERBS
(yes) and Adverb of
negation (No)
Examples:
yes, surely, certainly,
indeed, by all means,
no, not at all, by no
means.
-I hope my parent
just for once will say
yes to my latest
idea.
-You must have
heard about the
haunted house
surely?

INTERROGATIVE
ADVERB (Question):
When? Where? How?
Why? How
much/often?
Examples:
-When was the last
time you saw the
accused?
-Where have you been
all the while?
-How could you have
overlooked all these
mistakes?
-Why do you have to
do such a stupid
thing?

RELATIVE ADVERB
when, where, how,
why
These words are the
same in form as
Interrogative
Adverbs; but they
are not questions.
Examples:
-The time when he
arrived is still
unknown.
-The scene where the
accident occurred is
close to the hospital.

SIMPLE
FORMS

PROGRESSIV
E FORMS

Perfect
FORMS

Perfect
progressive
FORMS

Present Tense
Present tense expresses an unchanging,
repeated, or reoccurring action or
situation that exists only now. It can
also represent a widespread truth.

Example

Meaning

The mountains are

tall and white.

Unchanging action

Every year, the

school council
elects new
members.

Recurring action

Pb is the chemical
symbol for lead.

Widespread truth

Past Tense
Past tense expresses an action or
situation that was started and finished
in the past. Most past tense verbs end
in -ed. The irregular verbs have special
past tense forms which must be
memorized.

Example

Meaning

W.W.II ended in
1945.

Regular -ed past

Ernest
Hemmingway wrote
"The Old Man and
the Sea."

Irregular form

Future Tense
Future tense expresses an action or situation that will occur in the
future. This tense is formed by using will/shall with the simple form of
the verb. Example: The speaker of the House will finish her term in
May of 1998.

The future tense can also be

expressed by using am, is, or are
with going to.

The surgeon is going to perform the

first bypass in Minnesota.

We can also use the present tense

The president speaks tomorrow.

Past Progressive Tense

Present Progressive Tense
Past progressive tense
Present progressive tense
describes a past action which
describes an ongoing action
was happening when another
that is happening at the same
action occurred. This tense is
time the statement is written.
formed by using was/were
This tense is formed by using
with the verb form ending in
am/is/are with the verb form
-ing.
ending in -ing.
Example:
Example:
The explorer was explaining
The sociologist is examining
the latest discovery in Egypt
the effects that racial
when protests began on the
discrimination has on society.
streets.
Future Progressive Tense
Future progressive tense
describes an ongoing or
continuous action that will
take place in the future. This
tense is formed by using will
be or shall be with the verb
form ending in -ing.
Example:
Dr. Jones will be presenting
ongoing research on sexist

Present Perfect Tense

Present perfect tense describes an
action that happened at an
indefinite time in the past or that
began in the past and continues in
the present. This tense is formed
by using has/have with the past
participle of the verb. Most past
participles end in -ed. Irregular
verbs have special past participles
that must be memorized.
Example

Meaning

The researchers
have traveled to
many countries in
order to collect
more significant
data.

At an indefinite
time.

Women have voted

in presidential
elections since

Continues in the
present.

Past Perfect Tense

Past perfect tense describes
an action that took place in
the past before another past
action. This tense is formed
by using had with the past
participle of the verb.
Example:
By the time the troops
arrived, the war had ended.
Future Perfect Tense
Future perfect tense
describes an action that will
occur in the future before
some other action. This tense
is formed by using will have
with the past participle of the
verb.
Example:
By the time the troops arrive,
the combat group will have
spent several weeks waiting.

Present Perfect Progressive

Past Perfect Progressive
Present perfect progressive tense
Past perfect progressive tense
describes an action that began in
describes a past, ongoing action
the past, continues in the present,
that was completed before some
and may continue into the future.
other past action. This tense is
This tense is formed by using
formed by using had been and the
has/have been and the present
present perfect of the verb (the
participle of the verb (the verb
verb form ending in -ing).
form ending in -ing).
Example:
Example:
Before the budget cuts, the
The CEO has been considering a
students had been participating in
transfer to the state of Texas
many extracurricular activities.
where profits would be larger.
Future Perfect Progressive
Future perfect progressive tense
describes a future, ongoing action that
will occur before some specified future
time. This tense is formed by using will
have been and the present participle of
the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).
Example:
By the year 2020, linguists will have been
studying and defining the Indo-European
language family for more than 200 years.

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Active Form
In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence
and the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.
[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]
Examples:

Passive Form
In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the
sentence and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of
the sentence. You can use the passive form if you think that the thing
receiving the action is more important or should be emphasized. You can also
use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the action or if you do
not want to mention who is doing the action.
[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing
action]
Examples:

ACTIVE

PASSIVE

Present Simple Tense

Once a week, Tom cleans the

house.

Once a week, the house is

cleaned by Tom.

Present Continuous Tense

Right now, Sarah is writing

the letter.

Right now, the letter is being

written by Sarah.

Present Perfect Tense

Many tourists have visited

that castle.

That castle has been visited

by many tourists.

Past Simple Tense

Sam repaired the car.

The car was repaired by Sam.

Past Continuous Tense

The salesman was helping

the customer when the thief
came into the store.

The customer was being

helped by the salesman when
the thief came into the store.

Past Perfect Tense

George had repaired many

cars before he received his
mechanic's license.

Many cars had been repaired

by George before he received
his mechanic's license.

Future Simple Tense

Someone will finish the work

by 5:00 PM.

The work will be finished by

5:00 PM.

Future Perfect Tense

They will have completed the

project before the deadline.

The project will have been

completed before the
deadline.

Transitive and intransitive verbs

A verb can be either transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb needs an
object (in sentence) to give complete meaning while intransitive verb does
need an object (in sentence) to give complete meaning.
Transitive verb.
He sent a letter.
(Send is a transitive verb and it needs an object Example: a letter ,to
express full meaning.)
Intransitive verb cannot be changed into passive voice
The sentences having intransitive verbs (belonging to any tense) cannot be
changed into passive voice. The reason is that there is not any object in such
sentences and without object of sentence passive voice is not possible.
A sentence can be changed into passive voice if it has subject and object.
Intransitive Verb.
He laughs.
(Laugh is an intransitive verb and it does not need object for expressing
full meaning.)
-Sleep, go, reach, sit, die, are examples of intransitive verbs.
The following tenses can also not be changed into passive voice.
-Present perfect continuous tense
-Past perfect continuous tense

Types of Modals

Modals of Ability: Can, Could, Be able to,

May, Might
Modals of Advice: Should, Ought to, Had
better
Modals of Necessity: Must, Have got to,
Have to
Modals with Not: Must not, Do not
have to
Modals of Polite Request: Would you,
Could you, Will

Passive voice for Present/Future Modals

Active voice: CAN
She can play a violin.
She cannot play a violin.
Can she play a violin?

Passive voice: CAN BE

A violin can be played by her.

Active voice: MAY

I may buy the COMPUTER
I may not buy the computer.
May I buy the computer?

Passive voice: MAY BE

The computer may be bought by me.
The computer may not be bought by me.
May the computer be bought by me?

Active voice: MIGHT

Guests might play chess.
Guests might not play chess

Passive voice: MIGHT BE

Chess might be played by guests.
Chess might not be played guests.

Active voice: SHOULD

Students should study all lessons.
Students should not study all
lessons.
Should students study all lessons?

Passive voice: SHOULD BE

All lessons should be studied by students.
All lessons should not be studied by
students.
Should all lessons be studied by students?

Active voice: MUST

You must learn the test-taking
strategies.
You must not learn the test-taking
strategies.

Passive voice: MUST BE

Test-taking strategies must be learnt by
you.
Test-taking strategies must not be learned
by you.

Active voice: OUGHT TO

They ought to take the examination.

Passive voice: OUGHT TO BE

The examination ought to be taken by
them.

Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that

usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also
in front of gerund verbs).
There are hardly any rules as to when to use which
preposition. The only way to learn prepositions
is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in
English (literature) and learning useful phrases
off by heart.

Types of Prepositions
Preposition for Time
Preposition for Place and Direction
Preposition for Agent and Instrument
Prepositional Phrase

Prepositi
ons for
Direction

Preposition for Agent.

(by)
Preposition for agent is
used for a thing which is
cause of another thing in
the sentence. Such
prepositions are by, with
etc. Examples:
-This book is written by
Shakespeare.
-The work was completed
by him.
-The room was decorated
by her.
-The tub is filled with
water.

Preposition for
device, instrument or
machine.
Different preposition are
used by different
devices, instruments or
machines. Such
prepositions are by, with,
on etc.
Examples:
-She comes by bus daily.
-He opened the lock with
key.

A prepositional phrase is a combination of a verb and a preposition. It is just a verb

followed by a preposition.
Some verbs need particular prepositions to be used after them in sentences having a
direct object. Such a verb with its required preposition is called a prepositional phrase.
For example: He knocks at the door.
In above sentence knock at is prepositional phrase which contains a verb knock and
a preposition at. Without the use of correct preposition after a prepositional verb in a
sentence, the sentence is considered to be grammatically wrong. For example if we say,
he knocks the door, it is wrong because it lacks the required preposition at. So the
correct sentence is he knocks at
the door.
Prepositional Verbs are transitive and they have a direct object
in sentence. Some of the frequently used preposition verb are,
laugh at, knock at, listen to, look at, look for, look after, wait for,
agree to, agree with, talk about, talked to.
Examples:
-She is listening to music.
-She looked at the blackboard.
-We believe in God.
-They were waiting for the teacher.
-Do you agree with me?
-Do you agree to my proposal?
-Someone is knocking at the door.

it.

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it.

You use a coordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for,"

"so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent
clauses. Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as
prepositions.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a
coordinating conjunction:
-Lilacs and violets are usually purple.
In this example, the coordinating conjunction "and" links two
nouns.
-This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film
theorists, for the screenplay was written by Mae West.
In this example, the coordinating conjunction "for" is used
to link two independent clauses.
-Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth
dancing on rooftops and swallowing goldfish.
Here the coordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases
("dancing on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbs
describing the verb "spends."

it.

A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and

indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent
clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although,"
"as," "because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that,"
"though," "till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a
subordinating conjunction:
-After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause
"After she had learned to drive."
-If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on
Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent
clause "If the paperwork arrives on time."
-Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause
"when his computer crashed."

it.

Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to

link equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative
conjunctions are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but
also," "so...as," and "whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions
consist simply of a coordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or
adverb.)
The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative
conjunctions:
-Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.
In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link
the two noun phrases that act as the compound subject of the sentence:
"my grandfather" and "my father".
-Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.
Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a
Jello salad" and "a potato scallop."
-Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to
law school.
Similarly, the correlative conjunction "whether ... or" links the two

Addi
ti o
addi nal Idea
agai tionally
n
,
as, w , also, a
nd,
ell, b
equa esides,
impo lly,
rta
furth nt,
er
furth
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more dition,
over
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n

le
Examp le
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of
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this
an be
-this c n
seen i

Conclusions
:
-in final
analysis
-in
conclusion
-in final
consideration
Opinions:
-I agree/disagree
that/with/
-I am for/against
the idea of
-There are reasons
why..

Spatial
Order:
-on the other
side
-opposite to
-in the back
-in the front
-at that point

Time Order:
-as soon as
-before long
-in the first
place
-in the
meantime

Comma: tells the reader to pause,

just as the blinking yellow light tells
a driver to slow down and proceed
with caution.
Example:
-Lets play hockey, baseball and
tennis.

Semicolon: To separate two

independent clauses. One or
both of the clauses are short and
the ideas expressed are usually
very similar.
Example: He loves studying; He
can't get enough of school.
Apostrophe: The
superscript sign ( ' ) used to
indicate the omission of a
letter or letters from a word,
the possessive case, or the
plurals of numbers, letters,
and abbreviations.

Colon: To provide additional details

and explanation.
Example:
He had many reasons for joining the
club: to get in shape, to make new
friends, to lose some weight, and to
Question Mark: The
Exclamation Mark: Is used to
get out of the house.
question mark is used at the
express a sense of urgency or a
end of a question.
strong emotion.
Example: Where do you live?
Example: Look out!

English Gr
ammar, Mod
als Materials fo
r Teaching a
nd
Learning En
glish.
http://www.e
nglischhilfen.de/en
/grammar/h
ilfsverben
2.htm
English pr
eposition-10th
, Dec
2010, 19:35
http://www.e
go4u.com/e
n/cramup/grammar
/preposition
s
Advanced
Composition
for NonNative Spe
akers of Englis
h
http://eslbee
.com
Panama Pa
cifico Acade
my
Internationa
l Private Sch
ool in
Panama Pre
-K to Grad
e 12
http://www.l
earnenglish
.de/gram
mar/adjectiv
eorder.htm
`

Elfnet, For
ming Compa
rative and
Superlative
Adjectives
http://www
.efnet.com/tu
torials/a
djcompsup.p
hp
LEO: Litera
cy Educat n
io Online,
Summary of
Verb Tenses
http://leo.stc
loudstate.ed
u/gram
mar/tenses.h
tml#simple
Grammar
Bytes, Robin
L.
Simmons, T
he Collectiv
e Noun
http://www.ch
ompchomp.c
om/ter
ms/collectiv
enoun.htm
Chez Ouam
, Foro de Idiom
as,
Abr 11, 200
9, 2:39 am
http://chezouam.foroac
tivo.com/t42
6regular-and-i
rregular-plu
ral-ofnouns
Leo Netwo
rk, Learn En
glish,
English Gr m
a mar
http://www.l
earn n
mar/adjective e glish.de/gram
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