Introduction

Classical design methods (root locus and frequency response

method) requires that the physical systems be modeled in the
form of transfer function .
Limitations:
a transfer function is only defined under zero initial condition.
transfer function model is only applicable to linear time
invariant systems and their too it is generally restricted to
single input single output systems.
it reveals only the system output for a given input and provide
no information regarding the interval state of the system.
These methods are trial and error procedures so difficult to
visualize and organize even in moderately complex systems
and may not lead to a control system which yields an optimum
performance in some defined sense

Why State Space Model ?

It provides information about the state of the system
variables at some predetermined points along the flow of
signals along with the output.
It is a Direct time domain approach which provides basis for
modern control theory and system optimization.
It is a powerful technique for the analysis and design of
linear and nonlinear, time invariant or time varying MIMO
systems
In transform domain analysis, Laplace transform is needed
for
continuous time system and z-transform
is needed for discrete time systems but state variable
techniques are same for both linear continuous time systems
and linear discrete time systems.

Concepts Of State, State variables And State

Model
A mathematical abstraction to represent or model the
dynamics of a system utilizes three types of variables
called the input , the output and the state variables.
Consider the mechanical system shown in below fig a
.

We observe

that the displacement x(t) (output variable) at any time t

be computed if we know the applied force F(t) from t=,provided v()
the initial velocity and x() the initial displacement are known. At t=
we conceive the initial velocity and initial displacement of the system .
The state of the system of the fig at any time t is given variables x(t)
and v(t) which are called state variables of the system

Definition of state and

state variable

The State of a dynamic system is a minimal set of variables (known as state

variables) such that knowledge of these variables at t = t0 together with the
knowledge of the inputs for t >= t0 completely defines the behavior of the
system for t > t0.
In state variable representation state variables are represented as x1(t),x2(t),
.., inputs by u1(t),u2(t), and output by y1(t),y2(t) .

Structure of general control system

For simple mechanical system the state variable representation is given

by two first order differential equation 1 and 2,solution of these equation
3 and 4 gives the two state variable x(t) and u(t) of the system . for
general system of above figure, the state representation can be
arranged in the form of n first order differential equations.

Thus the n state variables and hence the state of the

system can be determined uniquely at any t>to if
each state variable is known at t=to and all the m
control forces are known through out the interval t to

The n differential equations may be written in vector

notations as

STATE MODEL OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

 Where x(t) is n x 1 state vector , u(t) is m x 1 input

vector,A is n x n system matrix define by

A=
And B is n x m input matrix defined
B=
Similarly , the output variable at time t are linear combination
of the value of the input and state variables at time t, i.e

(t)
..
..
(t)

Where the coefficients are constants. This set of equation may be put in
the vector matrix form

Where y(t) is p x 1 Output vector , C is p x n output matrix define by

C=
And D is p x m transmission matrix define by
D=

Now = 2
=2
= -2
=
=
= -+

We immediately observe that 12 c and 12 d given an

alternative state variable model of the systems previously
represented by 12 a and 12 b.
We , therefore conclude that the state variables of a system are
non unique.
Though the state model of a system is not unique , however ,
all such models have one characteristic is common for a given
systems , namely the number of elements in the state vector is
equal and minimal. This number n is referred to as the order of
the system .
The state model for a linear time-varying systems is of the
same form as define in eqs.11 except for the fact that the
coefficient of the matrices A,B,C and D are no more
constants but are functions of time.

STATE MODEL FOR SINGLE INPUT SINGLE

OUTPUT LINEAR SYSTEMS

Where B and C are now respectively (n x 1)and (1 x n)

matrices, d is a constant and u is a scaler control variables.
The block diagram representation of this state model is
shown in fig 4.

STATE MODEL FOR LINEAR CONTINUOUS TIME

SYSTEMS

State space representation using

Physical Variables
We shall consider state variable for a simple electrical system which is an
RLC
network shown in Fig .

The network has three energy storage elements: a capacitor C and two
inductors . If we have a knowledge of initial conditions and the input
signal e(t) for tthen the behaviour of the network is completely specified
for t.however ,if one of the initial conditions is not known, we are unable
to determine the complete response of the network to a given input.

State space representation using

Phase Variables

Phase variable formulations for transfer function

with poles and zeros

From the result given in (eq 29),(eq 30) and (eq 36) we
observe that the phase variable formulation can be obtained by
inspection from the transfer function and vice versa.
A disadvantage of phase variable formation is that the phase
variable , in general , are not physical variable of the system
and therefore are not available for measurement and control
purposes .In spite of the disadvantage phase variables provide
a powerful method of state variable formation. A link between
Transfer function and time domain design approach is
established through phase variables.

State space Representation Using Canonical variables

Observation. Notice the dotted block in matrix A . Therefore, x1 and x2,

are not in decoupled form (because of repeated roots at s=-1). This block
is Known as JORDAN BLOCK. This is the simplest decoupled form as
far as possible.

Derivation of Transfer Function from state model.

For a general state model .
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
The transfer function may be obtained as follows.
Taking the Laplace transform of the above equations we
have
sX(s) x(0) = Ax(s) + BU(s)
Y(s) = CX(s) + dU(s)
Solving for Y(s) we obtain
Y(s) = C(sI A) x(0) + C(sI - A) BU(s) + dU(s)
Assuming zero initial conditions, we get the system
transfer function as
T(s) = Y(s)/U(s) = C(sI - A) B + d
= C adj(sI - A)B + d
.(*)

An important observation that needs to be is that while the

state model is non unique the transfer function is unique.
Setting the denominator of eq(*) we get
I sI A I = 0

STATE VARIABLES AND LINEAR

DISCREET TIME SYSTEMS
The general form of state model for a multivariable
discreet time system
x[(k + 1)T] = f[x(kT), u(kT)]
(*)
y(kT) = g[x(kT), u(kT)]
(**)
Where x(kT) state vector u(kT) input vector y(kT) output
vector.
From these equations we see that given the initial state
x(0) and the values of inputs u(0), u(T), u(2T)

For an nth order linear time invariant system the

equations (*)and (**) reduce to
x(k + 1) = Ax(k) + Bu(k); x(kT)
y(k) = Cx(k) + Du(k)
x(k) = n x 1
state vector
u(k) = m x 1
input vector
y(k) = p x 1
output vector
A=nxn
system matrix
B=nxm
input matrix
C=pxm
output matrix
D=pxm
transmission matrix

State models from linear differential equations Z

transfer functions

This is the canonical state model . When some of the poles

of T(z) are repeated we get the Jordon canonical form. The
method of obtaining this form is identical to that of
continous case.

Derivation of Z transfer function from

discreet time state model
We know the equation
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
Taking Z transform on both sides of the above
equation.
zX(z) zx(0) = AX(z) + BU(z)
Solving for X(z) we get
X(z) = (zI A)-1 zx(0) + (zI - A)-1 BU(z)
Taking the Z transform of the above equation of
the above equation
Y(z) = CX(z) + dU(z)

Solving for Y(z) we obtain

Y(z) = C(zI - A)-1 zx(0) + C(zI - A)-1 BU(z) +
dU(z)
Assuming zero initial conditions,
T(z)= C(zI-A)-1 B + d = C adj(zI-A)B + d
I zI-A I
Setting the denominator equal to zero
I zI A I = 0
The roots of the characteristic equation are
the eigen values of Matrix A.

Diagonalization
We observed in earlier sections that the state model of
a system is not unique.
From application point of view physical variables for
system representation are most useful as resulting
state variable are real physical variables which can be
easily measured and used for control purposes .
However the corresponding state model in this case
generally not convenient for investigation of system
properties and evaluation of time response.

Solution of state equations

We shall develop methods for solution of the state
equation
From which the system transient response can then be
obtained.
First consider the classical method considering first order
differential equation.
dx = ax ; x(0) =
dt
This equation has the solution

The comparison of vector coefficients of equal powers

of t
a1 = Aa0
a2 = ()Aa1 = (!)A2 a0
ai = (1/i!) Ai a0
In the assumed solution equating x(t=0)= x 0 , we
find that
a 0 = x0
The solution x(t) is thus found to be
x(t) = (I + At + (!)A2 t 2+..
(1/i!)Ai t i+.. )x0

Each of the terms inside brackets is an nxn matrix. Because of the

similarity of the entity inside the brackets with the scalar exponent of
eq(**) we call it a matrix exponential which can be written as.
eAt = I + At + (!)A2t2 + (1/i!)Aiti +
.
The solution X(t) can now be written as
x(t) = eAt x0
..(***)
From eq (***) it is observed that the initial state x 0 at t=0 is driven to
a
State x(t) at time t. this transition in state is carried out by the matrix
exponent eAt . Because of this property , eAt is known as state
transition
matrix and is denoted by (t).

Let us now determine the solution of the non homogenous

state eq
(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t) ; x(0) = x0
Rewrite this eq in this form
(t) Ax(t) = Bu(t)
Multiplying both sides by e-At we can write
e-At((t) Ax(t)) = (d/dt)[e-Atx(t)] = e-AtBu(t)
Integrating both sides with respect to t between limits 0
to t , we get.
e-Atx(t)

e-Atx(t) x(0) =

e-AtBu()d
e-AtBu()d

Now pre multiplying both side by eAt, we

have
x(t) = eAtx(0) +
..(****)
homogenous solution

eA(t-)Bu()d

forced solution

If the initial state is known at t = t 0 rather

than at t = 0,
eq (****) becomes.

Properties of the State Transition Matrix :

Computation of state transition matrix

Computation by Laplace transform.
Let us consider an unforced system.
(t) = Ax
where A is a constant matrix
Taking the laplace transform of this equation
sX(s) x(0) = AX(s)
Where X(s) is the laplace transform of the unforced response and x(0) is
the initial condition vector . The above equation may be rearranged as
[sI - A]X(s) = x(0)
X(s) = [sI - A]-1 x(0)
Taking the inverse laplace transform we get
x(t) = L-1 [(sI - A) -1 ]x(0)
Where x(t) is the unforced response of the system this solution must be
Obviously identical with the one obtained earlier . The computation
yields a different approach to determine the state transition matrix given
below.

(t) = eAt = L-1[(sI -A)-1] = L-1(s)

(s) = (sI - A)-1 is called the resolvent matrix.
Let us consider now the response when the control
Force vector u is applied. The state equation for this
case is
= Ax +Bu
Performing the laplace transform gives.
sX(s) x = AX(s) +BU(s) ; x 0=x(0)
(sI - A)X(s) = x0 + BU(s)
Therefore
X(s) = [(sI - A)-1 ]x0 + [(sI - A)-1 BU(s)]
By inverse laplace transform
X(t) = L-1[(sI - A)-1 ]x0 + L-1[(sI -A)-1BU(s)]
= (t)x0 + L-1[(s)BU(s)]

Concepts of controllability and observability

Controllability:

A system is said to be completely state controllable if it impossible to
transfer the system state from any initial state x() to any desired state
x(t) in specified finite time by a control vector u(t).
A general nth order multi-input linear time-invariant system (with an
m-dimensional control vector)
= Ax +Bu
is completely controllable if and only if the rank of the composite
matrix
= [B : AB : : B]
is n. Since only matrices A and B are involved in above eqn, it can be
said that pair (A, B) is controlled if rank of is n.


The composite matrix defined by
= [B : AB : B]
=
It is easily seen that det 0 i.e., its rank is r = n = 3. The
system is therefore completely controllable.