UG PRINCIPLES

R E C U R S I O N : the property of allowing a given

structure
to contain more than one instance of a given category.

The term recursion has been used in generative

grammar to describe two separate but related
phenomena, one concerning the internal structure
of linguistic expressions and the other, the
computational mechanisms that generate those
structures. From an internalist perspective, the
latter is primary, while the former is apparently of
secondary importance. This becomes clear when we
consider the rationale behind the reduction of
transformational grammar to the single operation
Merge, i.e. the sole structure-building operation in a
grammar. The recursive structure-building character
of Merge accounts for the unbounded character of

In the classical theory of gravity,

[which is based on real spacetime], the universe can either have
existed for an infinite time or else
it had a beginning as a singularity
at some finite time in the past, [the
latter possibility of which, in fact,
the singularity theorems indicate],
although the quantum theory of
gravity, on the other hand,
suggests a third possibility [in
which it is possible for space-time

BINARITY principle:
Every phonological, morphological and
syntactic structure is inherently
binary branching.
BINARY BRANCHING IN PHONOLOGY:
A syllable like bat has a binary structure
consisting of:
the onset /b/ and the rhyme /at/
The rhyme at the same time, has a binary
structure, consisting of:
the nucleus /a/ and the coda /t/

BINARY BRANCHING IN MORPHOLOGY

Morphological structures are also binary:

indecypherability

1. prefix de + N cypher = V decypher

2. derivational suffix able + V decypher
= A decypherable
3. prefix in + A decypherable
= A indecypherable
4. derivational suffix ity + A
indecypherable
= N indecypherability

BINARY BRANCHING IN SYNTAX

Syntactic units or phrases are also binary:
clauses & sentences are particular kinds of phrases
Phrases are derived by means of successive
BINARY merger operations, which can be analysed
in a bottom-up fashion:
to form the following maximal TP projection:

they are trying to help you

the maximal VP projection trying to help you
merges (as COMPLEMENT)
with the minimal projection (i.e. HEAD) T are
the resulting intermediate projection T-bar
merges with the SPECIFIER maximal projection
DP they to form the maximal TP projection

ENDOCENTRICITY (HEADNESS principle):

Every syntactic structure is a projection of a head.

CONSTITUENT TESTS
(testing structure through standard heuristics)
coordination:

(a) what does he do to keep fit?

(b) run up the hill and up the mountain.
(a) What did he do about his bills?
(b) *ring up the phone company and up the electricity
company
substitution:
He is substituted for the chairman:

The chairman has resigned from the board, and he is

now living in utopia.
So is substituted for resigned from the board:

The press say that the chairman has resigned from

the board and so he has.

 Constituent structures are organised in an

endocentric and hierarchical configuration
Endocentricity is a UG-admitted mode of
organising categorial structures
X-bar Theory embodies the principles of
endocentricity
an X-bar-theory tree diagram provides
a graphic representation of the principles
of hierarchy and endocentricity

A language of the endocentric type generally

has a rigid word order

Determiner Phrase

Prepositional Phrase

DP
D
that

PP
N
idea

Adv
right

P
P
between

DP
the

Verb Phrase

Tense Phrase

VP
D
we

TP
V

V
support

eyes

D
we
DP
that idea

T
T
should

VP
complain

She talked to her with

sympathy.

CP
TP

[dec]

T'

D
she
T

VP

past
perf
3S

PP

VP
PP

VP
D
she

P
with

P
to

V
talked

D
her

DP
D

N
sympathy

She talked to her with

sympathy.

CP
C

TP

[dec]

T
VP

T
past
perf
3S

e
d

PP

VP
PP

VP
D
she

P
with

V
V
talk

P
to

D
her

DP
D

N
sympath
y

CP
C

[dec]

She often visits Mary at her

house.
TP

D
she

T
VP

T
pres
imp
3S

VP
VP
D
she

PP
Adv
ofte
n

Adv V
ofte visits
n

DP
D

N
Mary

P
at

DP
D
her

D
D
[gen]

N
house

CP
C

She often visits Mary at her

house.
TP
T

[dec]

VP

T
pres
imp
3S

s
VP
VP
D
she

PP
Adv
ofte
n

DP
V
visi
t

N
Mary

P
at

DP
D
her

D
D
[gen]

N
house

PASSIVISATION
OBJECTIVE CASE:

DIRECT OBJECT
INDIRECT OBJECT
OBLIQUE OBJECT

1. DIRECT OBJECT
Peter sent the material to us. Peter
sent it to us.
It/the material was sent to us [by Peter]
2. INDIRECT OBJECT
Peter sent us the material. ?Peter
sent us it.
We were sent the material [by Peter]
3. OBLIQUE OBJECT
The gorilla has sat on the night-table.
The night-table has been sat on [by
the gorilla].

1. Someone may have seen all of those teachers at the party.

2. All of those teachers may have been seen at the party.

3. Those teachers may have been seen all at the party.
4. Those teachers may have been all seen at the party.
5. Those teachers may have all been seen at the party.
6. Those teachers may all have been seen at the party.

the
PARTITIVE
phrase

1. all [individuals/members]
( of )
2. those teachers
1. PART
2. WHOLE

These works of graffiti, painted alongside

Regents Canal, were each done by two separate
artists, Mighty Monkey and Sweet Toof.
They were each taken in for questioning by the
police as suspects in a monetary theft.
Six different test spiders were each given a
different drug and were observed spinning webs.
The dream sequences and flashbacks were each
done in different creative styles that I enjoyed.
Boston and New York papers each published
their own transcripts which were snapped up hot
off the press.

CONTROL and ECM

constructions

ECM = exceptional case marking

They both expected

to attend the meeting
with some degree of
excitement.

C
P
TP

[decl
]

D
they

VP

T
Past
Impe
rf
3P

VP

PP

QP
NP

Q
both

with some degree of

excitement

V
expected
P
P

TP
D
PRO

T
T
to

VP
V

V
atten
d

DP
D
the

N
meetin

They both expected to attend the

meeting
with some degree of excitement.

CP
C

TP

[decl]

D
they

T
T

VP

Imp
Past
3P

PP
P
with
VP
QP
Q
both

PP
P

V
expected

D
some

NP
N
degree

V
NP

DP

TP
D
PRO

PP
P
of

DP

T
T
to

N
excitemen
t

VP
V
V
attend

DP
D
the

N
meetin

On Friday, I watched [the football

match].

On Friday, I watched them go up the

stairs.
On Friday, I watched [them go up the
stairs].

ECM constructions:
Can anyone advise me on how to deal with my boyfriend?
I find him quite mean and money driven.
Ive been with my boyfriend since I was 19. I find him
quite boring.
Some people find him difficult, but I find him quite
easy to wear.
You may find him/her/it/us/them
inspiring/attractive/annoying...
I consider/judge/believe / I judge him a fool / I judged
it (to be) right
I want it very cold. / I want that (to be) played at my
own funeral.
I'll go ahead and assign Jason to this task. I want him
(to be) working on this for about two hours each day
for the next five days.
I can't tell you how good this guy is when it comes to
working on your scooter because I have left him five

Who does he expect to call?

Who does he expect you to
call?
Who does he expect to call
you?

CONTROL:

Who does hei expect

WHO?

PROi

to call

ECM:

Who does hei expect youh to

call WHO?
ECM:

Who does he expect

WHO

to call

Who does he expect to

call?

CP
C'

D
who
C
T
does

TP
Q

T'

D
he
T
does

VP
D
D
he
he

V'

V
expect

TP
D
PRO

T'
T
to

VP
D
D
PRO
PRO

V
V
call

D
D
who
who

Who does he expect to call?

CP
C
C

TP
T

Q
T
doe
s

VP
D
he

V
expect

TP
T
T
to

VP
D
PRO
V
call

V
D
who

Who does he expect you

to call?

CP
C

D
who
C
T
does

TP
Q

D
he

TT
does
does

VP
D
he

V
expect

TP
D
you

T
T
to

VP
D
D
you
you

V
call

V
D
D
who
who

Who does he expect you to call?

CP
C
C

TP
T

Q
T
doe
s

VP
D
he

V
expect

TP
T
T
to

VP
D
you
V
call

V
D
who

Who does he expect to call

you?

CP
C

D
who
C
T
does

TP
Q

D
he

T
TT
does
does

VP
D
D
he
he

V
V
expect

TP
D
who

T
to

VP
D
D
who
who

V
V
call

D
you

Who does he expect to call you?

CP
C
C

TP
T

Q
T
doe
s

VP
D
he

V
expect

TP
D
who

T
T
to

VP
D
who

V
V
call

D
you

OBJECT-CONTROL

The unambitious caretaker

must have tried to tell his
daughter to expect us to
do them a favour.

CP
C

TP

[dec]

DP
D
the

T
must

FP

A
unambitio
us

PerfP
Perf

F
F

N
[agr] caretak
er

Perf
have

VP
V
V

Control predicate

tried

TP
to tell his daughter to expect us to do them a
favour

V
V
tried

TP
D
PRO

T
T
to

VP
V
V
V
tell

Control predicate
Object control
predicate

TP
to expect us to do them a
favour

DP
D
his

D
D
[gen]

N
daughte
r

V
TP

V
V
tell

DP
his
daughter

D
PRO

T
T
to

VP
V
V
expe
ct

TP
D
us

T
T
to

VP
V
DP
V

ECM predicate
Double object
predicate

V
do

D
the
m

D
a

N
favour

The unambitious caretaker must

totell his daughter expec us to d
have
trie
to
t
o
d
TP
CP
C

TP

[dec]

T
must

[agr]

VP
V

PerfP

FP

A
unambitiou
s
F

T
T
to

T
DP

D
the

D
PRO

V
TP
expec
t
D
us
T
to

Perf
F
N
caretake
r

Perf
have

VP

VP
V

TP
D
PRO

DP
V

T
T
to

V
do

VP

D
the
m

D
N
a favour

Control predicate

Double object
predicate

V
V
tried

Object control
predicate
ECM predicate

them a
favour.

TP

V
tell

to expect us

DP
D
his

D
D

[gen]

N
daughter

Our master would allow us all to lie in the sun.

Analysed as an ECM structure DISCARDED

c-command
1. polarity expressions
+ affective constituents
2. anaphoric pronouns
(i.e. reflexive/reciprocals)

+ their (suitable) antecedent