Metrology & Tolerance Engineering

Linear & Angular Measurements

K.Srinivasulu Reddy
Adama Science & Technology University
Adama

Linear Measurements

Measurement Standards
1) Line standard
2) End Standard
3) Wavelength standard

Different types of standards of length are

1. Material Standards
(a) Line Standard When length is measured as the
distance between centres of two engraved lines.
(b) End Standard When length is measured as the
distance between to flat parallel faces.
2. Wavelength Standard
The wavelength of a selected orange radiation of
Krtypton-86 isotope was measured and used as the basic
unit of length.
In October 1983, the meter (m) was redefined as the
distance travelled by light in vacuum during a time of
1/299792458 second.
This latest definition establishes that the speed of light in
vacuum is precisely 299 792 458 m/sec.

LINE STANDARDS When length is measured as the

distance between centres of two engraved lines, it is
called Line Standards.
Ex. Scale, Rulers, Imperial Standard Yard.
Characteristics of Line Standards :
(i) The engraved lines posses thickness and it is not
possible to accurately measure
(ii)Scale markings are subjected to wear. However
the ends are subjected to wear and this leads to
undersize measurements
(iii)Scale does not posses built in datum. Therefore it
is not possible to align the scale with the axis of
measurement
(iv) Scales are subjected to parallax errors
(v) Assistance of magnifying glass or microscope is
required.

END STANDARDS When length is expressed as the

distance between centers of two flat parallel faces, it is
called End Standard.
Ex: Slip Gauges, End Bars, Ends of micrometer anvils.
Characteristics of End Standards
(i) Highly accurate and used for measurement of
closed tolerances in precision engineering as well as
standard
laboratories,
tool
rooms,
inspection
departments.
(ii) They require more time for measurement and
measure only one dimension.
(iii) They wear at their measuring faces.
(iv) They are not subjected to parallax error.

End standards Contd..

Distance between two parallel end faces.

They are in two forms
1) End/Length bars
2) Slip Gauges

Standard lengths on the wall of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,

London
1 yard (3 feet), 2 feet, 1 foot, 6 inches (1/2 foot), and 3 inches.
The separation of the inside faces of the markers is exact at an
ambient temperature of 60 F (16 C) and a rod of the correct

Wavelength standards: A major drawback with the

material standards is that their length changes with time.
Secondly, considerable difficulty is expressed while
comparing the sizes of the gauges by using material
standards.
wave length of a monochromatic light can be used as a
natural and invariable unit of length.
Advantages :
(a) Not a material standard and hence it is not influenced by
effects of variation of environmental conditions like
temperature, pressure
(b) It need not be preserved or stored under security and
thus there is not fear of being destroyed.
(c) It is not subjected to destruction by wear and tear.
(d) It gives the unit of length which can be produced
consistently at all times.
(e) The standard facility can be easily available in all
standard laboratories and industries
(f) Can be used for making comparative measurements of

Linear Measurements
Linear measurement includes the measurement of
lengths, diameters, heights and thickness.
Linear measuring instruments are categorized
depending upon their accuracy. The two categories are
non-precision instruments and precision instruments.
1.Non-precision instruments include steel rule,
caliper divider, telescopic gauge that are used to
measure to the line graduations of a rule.
2.Precision instruments include micrometers,
vernier calipers, height gauges and slip gauges.

1.NON-PRECISION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Non-precision instruments are limited to the
measurement of parts to a visible line graduation
on the instrument used. There are several nonprecision measuring devices.
They are used where high measurement accuracy is
not required.
Steel Rule
It is the simplest and most common measuring
instruments in inspection. The principle behind steel
rule is of comparing an unknown length to the one
previously calibrated.
Rules are made in 150, 300, 500 and 1000 mm
length. There are rules that have got some
attachment and special features with them to make
their use more versatile.

2.Precision instruments

nier Caliper ii) Micrometer iii)Slip gages iv)Dial gages

i) Vernier Caliper

Measuring Internal Diameter Measuring External

Use the inside jaws of the caliper as
shown

Diameter

Use the outside jaws of the caliper as

shown

Measuring Depth of a Hole

Use the depth

gauge of the
caliper as shown

Least
count
It is the least measurement done by the instrument
L.C. of vernier = value of min. div. on main scale
No. of divisions on vernier scale
Ex.
= 1mm/50
=0.02mm
So this vernier measure upto 20 microns
Total reading =

Main scale reading +

no. of the division which exactly coincides with a division on main
scale x LC

Vernier
Measure the
reading ?

s divided into 10 parts and each part is divided into 4 sub parts=(1/10)x(1/4)=0.

The reading = 2.025 + 7 0.001 =

2.032 mm
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16

Reading the Vernier Scale

Read the 0 position of the

vernier scale on the main
scale to get a rough reading.
Rough reading = 18mm
Look along the vernier scale
until one of the vernier
division coincides with the
main scale
Accurate reading =
18.46mm

Exercise
What is the reading in the caliper shown?

A. 3.51cm
B. 3.57cm
C. 3.62cm
D. 3.642cm
E. 3.67cm

Solutio
n

LC =1/10 th of cm/10 =1/100 of cm = 0.01 cm

Read the 0 position of the

vernier scale on the main scale
to get a rough reading.
Rough reading = 3.6cm
Look along the vernier scale
until one of the vernier division
coincides with the main scale

3.6 cm + 0.01 x7 =3.6 + 0.07 cm = 3.67 cm

Accurate reading = 3.67cm

20

ii)Micrometers
Micrometer is one of the most widely used precision instruments.
It is primarily used to measure external dimensions like diameters
of shafts, thickness of parts etc. The essential parts of the instrument
are
Frame
Anvil and spindle
Screwed spindle Graduated sleeve or barrel
Thimble
Ratchet or friction stop Spindle clamp

Accuracy upto 0.001 mm are available

22

Micrometer
The auxiliary scale is made on the thimble, which rotates
about the main scale
Principle of micrometer:
Micrometers works on the principle of screw and nut.
When a screw is turned through nut, through one
revolution, it advances by one pitch distance, i.e one rotation
of screw corresponds to a linear movement of a distance
equal to pitch of the thread.

23

If the circumference of the screw is divided into number

of equal parts say n, its rotation through one division
will cause the screw to advance through (pitch/n) length.
Thus the minimum length that can be measured by
such arrangement will be (pitch/n)
The length value of one circumferential division can be
reduced by
i)reducing the pitch of the screw thread
(or)
ii)increasing the no. of divisions on the circumference of
the
screw(n)
and accuracy
considerably.

of

measurement

can

be

increased

The frame is made of steel, malleable cast iron or

light alloy. The anvil shall protrude from the frame for
a distance of at least 3-mm in order to permit the
attachment of measuring wire support. The spindle
does the actual measuring and possesses the
threads of 0.5 mm pitch.
The barrel has datum and fixed graduations Thimble
is tubular cover fastened with the spindle. The
beveled edge of the spindle is divided into 50 equal
parts, every fifth being numbered.
The ratchet is a small extension to the thimble. It
slips when the pressure on the screw exceeds a
certain amount. It produces uniform reading and
prevents damage or distortion of the instruments.
The spindle clamp is used to lock the instrument at

micrometer = Pitch of the spindle screw/No. of divisions on the sp

27

Types of Micrometers
Inside micrometers for measuring the inside
diameters
Depth micrometers for measuring the depth of
slots and blind holes
Screw thread micrometers for measuring the
screw thread parameters discussed later.
V-anvil micrometer that can be used for
measuring the diameter of objects that have odd
number of symmetrical or evenly spaced
features.
Example : Diameter of a 3-fluted end mill.
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28

Inside Micrometer Caliper

The measuring tips of inside micrometer are constituted
by jaws with contact surface, which are hardened and
ground to a radius. Unlike the conventional micrometer,
an inside micrometer does not have any U-shape
frame and spindle.
One of the jaws is held stationary at the end and second
one moves by the movement of the thimble. A locknut is
provided to check the movement of the movable jaw. This
facilitates the inspection of small internal dimension.

Inside Micrometer Contd..

The inside micrometer is intended for internal
measurement to an accuracy of 0.001 mm. In principle,
it is similar to an external micrometer and is used for
measuring holes with a diameter over 50 cm. It consists
of :
measuring unit
extension rod with or without spacing collar, and
handle.
When the micrometer screw is turned in the barrel, the
distance between the measuring faces of the
micrometer can vary from 50 to 63 mm. To measure the
holes with a diameter over 63 mm, the micrometer is
fitted with extension rods. The extension rods of the
sizes 13, 25, 50, 100, 150, 200 and 600 mm are in
common use.

Measuring the Inside Diameter of a Hole by an Inside

Micrometer
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Micrometer
Anvil
Handle
Extension Rod

The measuring screw has a pitch of 0.5 mm. The

barrel or sleeve is provided with a scale of 13 mm
long and graduated into half-millimeter and
millimeter divisions as in the external micrometer.
A second scale is engraved on the beveled edge of
the thimble. The beveled edge of the thimble is
divided into 50 scale divisions round the
circumference.
Thus, on going through one complete turn, the
thimble moves forward or backward by a thread
pitch of 0.5 mm, and one division of its scale is,
therefore, equivalent to a movement of
0.5 X1/50 = 0.01 mm.

Stick Micrometers
Stick micrometers are used for measurement of longer
internal length. A series of extension rods will permit
continuous range of measurement up to the required
length.
Screw joints are used for joining the end-piece,
extension rod and the measuring unit. The extension
rod is generally hollow and has minimum external
diameter of 14 mm. The accuracy of this instruments is
in order of 0.005 mm.

Depth Micrometer

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35

Screw Thread Micrometer Caliper

The shape of a Screw thread Micrometer is more or
less like an ordinary micrometer with the difference
that it is equipped with a pointed spindle and Vanvil, both correctly shaped to contact the screw
thread of the work to be gauged.
The angle of the V-anvil and the conical point at the
end of the spindle correspond to the included angle
of the profile of the thread.
The extreme point of the cone is rounded so that it
will not bear on the root diameter at the bottom of the
thread, and similarly clearance is provided at the
bottom of the groove in the V-anvil so that it will not
bear on the thread crest.
The spindle point of such a micrometer can be applied
to the thread of any pitch provided the form or

V anvil micrometer
Measures the outside diameter of cutting tools(such
as taps, reamers, endmills) which have three or five
flutes.

Digital Micrometer
Digital micrometer is capable of giving direct reading up
to 0.001 mm. The spindle thread is hardened, ground and
lapped in this type of micrometers.
The positive locking clamp ensures locking of spindle at
any desired setting. Operation is very simple with push
button controls for Zero reset and indication hold.

iii)Slip Gauges (gage blocks or johansson gages )

Slip gauges are also called as Gauge blocks or Block
gauges and are universally accepted as end standards of
length in industry.
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of high grade steel
(hardened alloy tool steel or cemented carbides like
tungsten carbide or tantalum carbide ) with less coefficient of thermal expansion.
These blocks are highly hardened (more than 800 HV)
through out, to ensure maximum resistance to wear and
are then stabilised by heating and cooling successively in
stages so that the hardening stresses are removed.
After hardening, they are subjected to lapping to a high
degree of finish, flatness and accuracy.

The essential purpose of slip gauges is to make available

end standards of specific lengths by temporarily combining
several individual elements, each representing a standard
dimension, into a single gauge bar.
The combination is made by pressing the faces into
contact and then imparting a small twisting motion while
maintaining the contact pressure. This is called wringing.
The cross sections of these gauges are 9 x 30 mm for
sizes up to 10 mm and 9 x 35 mm for larger sizes.
Normal Size

Cross-sectional Area
(w d) in mm
0.0

Up to 10 mm

0.05

300.3 X 9 0.3
0.0

Above 10 mm
35

0.05
X 9

0.3

0.3

Wringin
g of sliding two blocks together so
Wringingis the process
that their faces lightly bond. Because of their ultraflat
surfaces, when wrung, gauge blocks adhere to each other
tightly.
The slip gauges are wrung together by hand through a
combined sliding and twisting motion.
The air gap between the gauge faces is expelled out and
the adhesion is caused partly by molecular attraction and
partly by atmospheric pressure. Adhesionis the tendency
of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another.

Tungsten Carbide slip gauges with hardness of 1500 vickers

Wringing of slip gauge

The gap between the two wrung slip gauges is only of

the order of 0.00635 m which is negligible.
The minimum conditions for wringability are :
asurface finishof 0.025mor better, and aflatnessof at

Slip gauges are used for the verification and graduation

of measuring apparatus for linear dimensions of industrial
components.
According to accuracy, the slip gauges can be graded
into four categories.
Reference (AAA): smalltolerance (0.05m) used to
establish standards
Calibration (AA): (tolerance +0.10m to 0.05m) used
to calibrate inspection blocks and very high precision
gauging
Inspection (A): (tolerance +0.15m to 0.05m) used
astool room standards for setting other gauging tools
Workshop (B): large tolerance (tolerance +0.25m to
0.15m) used as shop standards for precision

Normal Set M-45

Slip gauges of the following dimensions are available in
this type of set.

Range

Step

Pieces

1.001 to 1.009

0.001

1.01 to 1.09

0.01

1.1 to 1.9

0.1

1 to 9

10 to 90

10

Total

45

Special Set M-87

Slip gauges of the following dimensions are available in
this type of set.
(87 pieces)
Range

Step

Pieces

1.001 to 1.009

0.001

1.01 to 1.49

0.01

49

0.5 to 9.5

0.5

19

10 to 90

10

1.005

--

Also M-112, M-105, M-50, M-33 and M-27

Themetricsethas87gaugeblocks(inmm),

Selection of Slip gauges for required dimension:

Always start with the last decimal place and deduct this
from the required dimension.
Select the next smallest figure in the same way, find
the remainder and continue this until the required
dimension is completed.
Minimum number of slip gauges should be selected to
build up the given dimension.

Selection of Slip Gauges Contd

Let us consider the case where we have to arrange a
dimension of 56.421 mm and normal sets of slip
gauges are available.

Always the last decimal point is to be considered

first, i.e. 0.001 mm. Since gauge of 0.001 mm is not
available, 1.001 mm slip gauge is to be selected.
The dimension left now is 56.421 1.001 = 55.42
mm.

Now considering the second decimal place, slip gauge

with 1.02 mm height is selected.
The dimension left is 55.42 1.02 = 54.4 mm.
Next for 54.4 mm, slip gauge with 1.4 mm is to be
chosen and then 3.0 mm gauge. Finally, 50 mm gauge
is to be chosen
Thus, we have 50.000 + 3.000 + 1.400 + 1.020 +
1.001 = 56.421 mm.
All these five slip gauges are wrung properly to get the
required dimension.

Build 29.758mm and 46.636mm

29.758
First for last decimal place of 0.008, choose 1.008 mm
slip gauge
Second decimal place of 0.05, choose 1.25 mm slip
gauge
Dimension left= 28.75-1.25 = 27.5 mm
Select 7.5 mm and 20 mm slip gauges to build up the
required dimension.
46.635
Thus we have 20 + 7.5 + 1.25 + 1.008 = 29.758 mm
=1.005 + 1.13 + 4.5 + 40 = 46.635 mm
62.225

iv)COMPARATORS (Dial gauges)

Comparators are the instruments calibrated by means
of end standards to measure unknown dimensions.
Comparator is used to detect and display the small
differences between the unknown linear dimensions
and the length of the standard.
The difference in lengths is
displacement of a sensing probe.

detected

as

The important and essential function of the

instruments is to magnify or amplify the small input
displacement so that it is displayed on an analog scale.
Comparators are classified on the basis of type of the
amplification method used.

Dial gage(Dial
indicator)

The basic concept used is that

the comparator is set for any
given dimension.
During the measurement a
comparator is able to give the
deviation of the dimension from
the set dimension.
This cannot be used as an
absolute measuring device but
can
only
compare
two
dimensions.

Types of comparators
a. Mechanical
comparators
b. Optical comparators
c. Pneumatic
comparators

Systems of Displacement Amplification used

inMechanicalComparators
(i) RackandPinion.In it the measuring spindle integral with a rack,
engages
a
pinion
which amplifies the movement of plunger through a gear train.
(ii) Camandgear train.In this case the measuring spindle acts on a
cam
which
transmits the motion to the amplifying gear train.
(iii) Lever with toothed sector.In this case a lever with a toothed
sector
at
its
end
engages a pinion in the hub of a crown gear sector which further meshes
with a final pinion to produce indication.
(iv)Compound Levers. Here levers forming a couple with compound
action are connected through segmentsandpinion to produce final
pointer movement.

Rackandpinion.

Camandgear train.

Lever with toothed gear.

Compound levers.

DialIndicator
One
of
the
usedmechanicalcomparator.

most

commonly

The linear movement of the spindle is magnified by means

of a gearandpinion train into sizable rotation of the
pointer on thedialscale.
Theindicatoris set to zero by the use of slip gauges
representing the basic size of the part.
This is generally used for inspection of small precisionmachined parts.
Non-dial types of indicators include mechanical devices
withcantilevered pointers and electronic devices with digital
displays.

Rack
Gear
Pinion

Pointer
(Large hand)
Plunger
Work to be measured

Gear and pinion type dial indicator

57

Inside the dial indicator, we can find a simple rack and

pinion gear system.
The rack is connected to the plunger. The pinion
gear is connected (through a series of other gears) to the
hands (pointer) that we see from the top.
If you push the plunger in, so that the large hand points to
the "zero" position, the small hand will also point at it's
"zero" position.
As you pass this "zero" position each time the large hand
rotates around the dial, the small hand will increment by
one count. The small hand is keeping track of each
revolution Least
of the large
hand.
count=
1/100=0.01 mm

The small knob on the side of the dial indicator holds a

clamp that locks the large dial in place.
If you loosen this small knob, you will be able to rotate
the scale freely so that the zero point can be placed at any
position that the large hand sweeps.

ever type dial test indicator

Plunger is replaced by a ball tipped lever arm which is
pivoted on the body of the indicator.
The ball-tipped portion is called stylus. The ball tipped
stylus is connected to a main lever, which is pivoted at its
lower end.
A ball at the upper end of the
main lever rotates the scroll and
this movement is displayed by
the pointer on the main scale.
It
has
only
a
limited
range(limited
by
the
scroll
length) and hence a revolution
counter is not provided in this
type of dial indicator.
Stylus

Summary:
1. Plunger type( with linear moving plunger):The value of
each division on main circular scale is 0.01 mm. The value of
each division on the revolution counter is 1 mm.
2.Lever type(with an angular moving stylus):The movement
of the stylus hardly exceeds 1 mm, therefore revolution
counter is not necessary.
Magnification = Movement of the pointer on the dial scale
Movement of the dial indicator plunger
Prob: The pointer makes one complete rotation in circle of
21mm dia. by the movement of the plunger. The dial is
divided into 100 divisions and one division corresponds to
0.01 mm. What is the magnification of dial gage?
Movement of pointer = X 21

Movement of the plunger = 100 x 0.01 mm

Magnification= Movement of pointer/ movement of plunger= X 21/ 1 =

Vernier Constant : It is defined as the difference between one small

division of the vernier scale and one small division of the main scale.
Least Count : It is the minimum distance that can be measured by a
vernier caliper or a micrometer accurately.
Wringing : It is the process of combining two slip gauges by
application of pressure normal to the surface to be joined with sliding
motion of one surface over the other.
Transducer : A transducer is a device which, when actuated,
transform energy from one form to another.
Piezo-resistive Effect : It is defined as the phenomenon due to which
resistivity of a conductor changes when it is subjected to strain.
Gauge Factor : The gauge factor of a strain gauge is the ratio of
relative change in resistance to the relative change in length.

Lever type Dial indicator

64

Measurement of Angles
Angle is defined as the opening between two lines
which meet at a point.
For engineering purpose, the angular units are
defined in sexagesimal system(base 60)* i-e
Degree, Minutes, Seconds
Only because of precise angular measurement,
ships and aero planes can navigate confidently
with out the help of sight of land.

Background

Babylonians

Base 60-For measuring time, angles, and geographic coordinates

The sexagesimal system of angular measurement

Aminute of arc (or) arc minute, is a unit ofangular measurement
equal to one sixtieth (160) of onedegree. In turn, asecond of
arc(or)arc secondis one sixtieth (160) of one arc minute.
Since one degree is defined as one three hundred and sixtieth ( 1360) of a
rotation, practical unit of angular measure is thedegree of which there
are360in a circle. There are 60minutes of arc in a degree, and 60arc
seconds in a minute.
Unit
Value
Symbol
Abbreviations
360circle

deg

60degree

(prime)

arcmin, amin,
am,, MOA

60arcminute

(double
prime)

arcsec, asec,
as

1,000arcsecon
d

mas

Microarcsecon 106arcsecon
d
d

as

Degree

Arcminute

Arcsecond
Milliarcsecond

The sexagesimal system of angular measurement Contd..

It is used in those fields which require a unit for the

expression of small angles, such asastronomy,optometry,
ophthalmology,optics,navigation
Radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre
by an arc of a circle of length equal to its radius. It is more
widely used in mathematical investigation.
1 radian = 57.2958 degrees.

Line standard: Uniformly defined circles with the lines

engraved at regular intervals say one degree.
End standard: Angle gauges with the angle defined between
adjacent faces.

Angular measurement instruments:

1.Vernier bevel protractor (or) Universal bevel protractor
2.Optical bevel Protractor
3.Sine bar
4.Angle gauges
5.Clinometer
6.Angle dekkor
7.Auto collimator

r bevel protractor or Universal bevel protractor : 2 1/2 or 5 minutes a

l bevel protractor: 2 minutes
gh precision: Sine bar, angle gauges , optical instruments are used

Tool makers Square

The solid square or tool makers square is usually used to
check squareness of surfaces
The wide portion is referred to as the beam and the
slender upright portion is called the blade.
Beam

Blade

Protract
or between the two faces of a
It is to measure the angle

component.
The plate protractor is capable of measuring to within 1degree.
Consist of movable blade
Can be measured upto 30 min.

Bevel protractors:

As per IS practice, there are two bevel protractors, namely

1) Mechanical Bevel protractor
2) Optical Bevel protractor

(Base plate)

Bevel Protractor:
It is the simplest angle measuring instrument.
The base plate is attached to the main body, which
carries a main scale graduated in degrees and an
adjustable blade is attached to a circular plate (swivel
plate) containing vernier scale.
The adjustable blade which is capable of rotating freely
about the centre of the main scale engraved on the body
of the instrument and can be locked in any position.
Function
The Protractor disc is free to rotate at the pivot and can
be clamped with the nut in base in assembly.
Blade can slide both ways.
Vernier scale fitted with disc is to take readings during
measurement.

Universal Bevel Protractor

Also called Vernier Bevel Protractor

Used for measuring and testing
angles.
Accuracy of this instrument is
5minutes

An
acute
angle
attachment is provided at
the top of the base. The
acute angle attachment
can be readily fit into the
body and clamped in any
position.

ading Universal Bevel protractor

The protractors disc is graduated in Degrees.
It reads zero to 90 Degrees on both side of zero line on
main scale.
VSD has 12 Divisions on both sides of zero line. Each
division 5 min.

CASE 1

Do Your Self

Case-2

Optical bevel protractor:

Recent development of vernier bevel protractor
Readings upto approximately 2 minutes of an arc.
Readings are taken against vernier by means of optical
magnifying system which is integral with the instrument

NE BAR: Based on the laws of trignometry

Accuracy requirement of sine bar:

1. The axes of the rollers must be parallel to each other and
the centre distance L must be known.
2. The top surface of the bar must have a high degree of
flatness. It should be parallel to a plane connecting the
axes of the rollers
3. The rollers must be of identical diameters and round

Sine bar: It is a precision measuring instrument and is an

excellent example of combination of linear measurement
and angular measurement when used in conjunction with
gauge blocks (slip gauges). Used to measure external
taper angles.
It consists of a bar carrying a pair of rollers with known
centre distance.
It is made of high carbon, high chromium corrosion
resistant steel, suitably hardened, precision ground and
stabilised.
Relief holes are provided for easy handling of sine bar
and for reducing the weight of the sine bar.

distance
between
the axes
of the
rollers is exactly
The
It should
be used
on a grade
A surface
plate.
100mm, 200mm or 300mm.
Surface finish of 0.2 m Ra or better.

Working principle of Sine bar:

The sine bar is first kept on the surface plate. The work
piece is then placed on the sine bar.
Place the set of slip gauges under one end of the roller of
sine bar such that the upper surface of the work piece is
approximately parallel with the table surface.
Place the plunger of the dial gauge on the upper surface
of the work piece. Take readings with the dial gauge at both
ends and note their difference, noting which end of the
work is low.
Where the end of the sine bar is low, slip gauges height
must be increased by an amount equal to the difference in
the dial gauge readings multiplied by the proportion of sine
bar length to work length.

For example, if one end of a workpiece is 0.01mm low,

the sine bar being 250 mm long and the work 100 mm
long, then the required increase in height of slip gauge set
will be 0.01 x 250/100 = 0.025 mm.
This will not give an immediately correct setting from a
first approximation, but it is much quicker than a trial and
If l method.
is the linear distance between the axes of the rollers
error
and h is the height of the slip gauges, then sin = h/l
For better results, both the rollers could also be placed
on slip gauges, of height h1and h2respectively.
Then sin = (h2-h1)/l

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Precautions in use of sine bars.

(i)The sine bar should not be used for angle greater than
45 degrees ,
because any possible error in construction will intensify at
this limit.
(ii) A compound angle should not be formed by misaligning
of workpiece with the sine bar. This can be avoided by
attaching the sine bar and work against an angle plate.
(iii) Accuracy of sine bar should be ensured.
(iv) As far as possible longer sine bar should be used since
many errors are reduced by using longer sine bars.

Differentiating the above equation,

d is error in angle measurement, dh is tolerance sink in slip gauge dimensional

or in center and center distance of slip gauge.

slip gauges are highly accurate dh can be neglected as compared to dl, so

Error in measurement is directly proportional

to Tan
The value of Tan increases suddenly and
approaches infinity when the angle increases
above 450

Checking of
component.

unknown

angles

of

heavy

If the components are heavy and cant be mounted on

the sine bar, then sine bar is mounted on the
component.
The height over the rollers can then be measured by a
vernier height gauge ; using a dial test gauge mounted
on the anvil of height gauge as the fiducial indicator to
ensure constant measuring pressure.
The anvil on height gauge is adjusted with probe of dial
test gauge showing same reading for the topmost
position of rollers of sine bar.
The difference of the two readings of height gauge
Sin distance
= (h1-h2)/
L bar gives the sine
divided by the centre
of sine
of the angle of the component to be measured.

height gauge for obtaining two readings for either of the

roller of sine bar.

Dia
l

The difference of the two readings of height gauge

divided by the centre distance of sine bar gives the sine
of the angle of the component to be measured.

Sine Centre

A special type of sine bar is sine centre which is used for

conical objects having male and female parts.
It cannot measure the angle more than 45 degrees.

Angle gauges
The selection of angular gauge blocks is similar to the
selection of linear gauge blocks, except that subtraction
may also be required.
There are also a number of angular gauge blocks for
the measurement of angles. The common angle gauges
are:
1,3,9,27 and 41 degrees
1,3,9,27 minutes
3,6,18 and 30 seconds
Each angle gauge is accurate to within one second and
is marked with engraved V which indicates the direction
of the inclined angle.
When the angles of individual angle gauges are to be
added up, then the V of all should be in line and when any
angle is to be subtracted, its engraved V should be in other
direction.

Devised by Dr. Tomlinson of N.P.L in 1939

Size: 75 x 16 mm

1. An angle of 330 - 9 15 is to be measured with the help

of the following standard angle gauges: [ 1, 3, 9, 27, 41
degree], [ 1, 3, 9, 27],
[ 3, 6, 18, 30]
Show the arrangement of angle gauges with a neat sketch
by selecting minimum number of gauges.
A: 270 + 90 30 + 9 + 18 - 3

2. An angle of 1020-8 -42

A: 900 + 90 + 30 + 9 1 + 30 + 18 6

3. A 100 mm sine bar is to be set up to an angle of 330,

determine the slip gauges needed from 87 pieces set.
Combination of slip gauges required to set up an angle is
given by h= L Sin
Where L= distance between roller centers= 100 mm
and = 330
Therefore h= 100 sin 330 = 54.464 mm
Minimum number of slip gauges needed to build up
54.464 mm is
1.004
1.460
2.000
50.000
----------54.464
------------

egrees 56 minutes 48 seconds

r: 9 Degree -1Degree -3Minutes-1Minutes +30Sec +18 Sec

Build an angle of 57o 34 9

Solution:
Degree = 41o +27o -9o +1o -3o =57
Minutes = 27+9-3+1 = 34
Seconds = 6+ 3 =9

Give the combination of angle gauges required to build

102o 8 42 Degree: 90o +9o +3o =102o
Minutes: 9-1 = 8
Seconds 30+ 18- 6 =42

Spirit Level(bubble level)

Spirit levels are used for:
1)
Measuring
small
angle
or
inclination
2) To establish a horizontal datum
3) To test straightness and flatness of
surfaces
Consists of a sealed glass tube mounted on a base.
The inside surface of the tube is ground to a convex
barrel shape having large radius.
The precision of the level depends on the accuracy of
this radius of the tube.
A scale is engraved on the top of the glass tube.
The tube is nearly filled with either ether or alcohol,
except a small air in the form of a bubble.

Principle:
The bubble is always tries to remain at the highest point
of the tube.
When the level is placed on a horizontal surface, the
bubble rests at the centre of the scale.
If the base of the level is tilted through a small angle,
the bubble will move relative to the tube a distance along
its radius corresponding to the angle.

Checking the angle of taper using rollers:

1. Method of checking the angle of a taper plug gauge using rollers.
2. Micrometer and slip gauges are illustrated by fig.
3. Taper plug is placed on a surface plate. First two rollers of equal
diameters are
placed touching on the opposite sides of the lower surface of the plug
on the slip
gauge combinations of equal heights (H) The distance (M) between the
ends of
the roller is measured with a micrometer.
4. Then the rollers are placed on slip .gauge combinations of height
touching on the
opposite sides of the top portion of the plug.
5. The distance between the ends of the rollers in this new position is
again
measured by means of micrometer.
6. The half of the taper angle of the plug is then calculated as follows:
7. If d= diameter of rollers, then

Measuring of included angle of an internal dovetail:

1. Dovetail slides are widely used in machine tools as a guide ways.
2.The sloping side of the dovetail slide act as guide and prevent the
lifting of the
female mating part during sliding operation.
3. This angle can be measured by using two rollers of equal size, slip
gauges and a
micrometer.
4. The two rollers of equal diameters are placed. One each at the two
corners and
distance i is measured across the rollers with a micrometer.
5. Then the rollers equal size slip gauge blocks and the distance is
measured. It
should be noted that the rollers do not extend above the top surface of
dovetail.
6. Let the height of slip gauges be h, then

Measuring external dovetail slide:

1. Figures shows an external dovetail slide with angle of dovetail .
2.To check the width of opening b as shown in fig., two rollers of
equal diameter d
are placed one each in the two corners.
3. Then the length L is obtained by trial and error with the help of slip
gauges or end
bars if L is greater than 250mm.
4. Then the width b can he calculated by the relation

b = l + d + d cot/2

b = l + d + d cot/2

To check the angle of a taper hole

we require two balls of different sizes, depth gauge, height gauge etc.
This method is particularly suitable for checking the angle of a tapered
ring gauge.
First a small ball of radius R1 is inserted in the hole in lower position and
depth H1 from upper surface of tapered hole to the top of the ball is
measured. Small ball must be of such size as to be seated somewhere in
between hole. Then bigger ball of radius R2 is placed in the hole and
distance H2 i.e. between the top of ball and tapered hole is measured with
height gauge. In Fig. 01 and 02 represent the centres of two balls. Draw O1S parallel to the XY of tapered hole in section and 02S perpendicular to
O1S. Then angle 02-O1-S = A/2 ;
(where A is the angle of tapered hole.)

Combination set
Consist of 4 parts located in the groove of the
blade

 Protractor Bevel can be adjusted only by direct

application to lines or surfaces having the proper
angular relation.
It often happens that such adjustment is not
feasible and, therefore, a registering device, in the
form of a graduated arc, is applied to the bevel,
making what is known as a protractor. This tool can
be used to find the angular relation in degrees

 Center Square: Center of a circle is found at the

intersection of any two diameters, an instrument for
readily finding that point is a great convenience.
This fig. shows a combination straightedge and
square, called a center square, which accomplishes
this result.
As one edge of the rule bisects the angle of the
square, it is evident that a line drawn by that edge
passes through the center of any circular piece to
which the square is applied.
Locating centers in the ends of round bars or circular
work of any kind is the principal use of this tool.