Conservation Laws for Continua

Mass Conservation

vi
vi

dV

t x const
yi
t x const
yi
V

e2

vi

0
t y const yi

or

ij
yi

b j a j

e1
e3

Angular Momentum Conservation

ij ji

V
R
Deformed
Configuration

Original
Configuration

R0

S0
e2

u(x)

e3

y ( v) 0
t y const

V0

x
e1

Linear Momentum Conservation

y b a

R0

S0

u(x)
y

Original
Configuration

V
R

T(n)

Deformed
Configuration

Work-Energy Relations
Rate of mechanical work done on
a material volume

e2

d
(n )
r& Ti vi dA bivi dV ij Dij dV
dt
A

1
2 vivi dV

R0

S0

u(x)
y

x
e1

e3

V
R

T(n)

Deformed
Configuration

Original
Configuration

Conservation laws in terms of other stresses

Sij

S 0b 0a

xi

0b j 0 a j

F T

0b 0a

Mechanical work in terms of other stresses

r&

Ti(n )vi dA

r&

Ti(n )vi dA

& dV d

b
v
dV

S
F
i
i
ij

ji 0 dt

V0

& dV d

b
v
dV

E
i
i
ij

ij 0 dt

V0

v
v
dV

0
i
i
0
2

V0

v
v
dV

0
i
i
0
2

V0

ik F jk
xi

0b j 0 a j

Principle of Virtual Work (alternative statement of BLM)

1 vi v j
Dij

2 y j
yi

vi
Lij
y j

R0

S0
e2

e3

If

ij Dij dV

dvi
vi dV
dt

Then

bi vi dV ti vi dA 0

S2

ji
y j

bi

ni ij t j

on

dvi
dt

S2

x
e1

u(x)

S2
V

t
Deformed
Configuration

Original
Configuration

for all

vi

S1

Thermodynamics
S

S0

Temperature
Specific Internal Energy
Specific Helmholtz free energy s
Heat flux vector q
External heat flux q
Specific entropy s
First Law of Thermodynamics

Second Law of Thermodynamics

R0

e2

R
e1
e3

t
Original
Configuration

d
( KE ) Q W
dt

ij Dij i q
t x const
yi

dS d

0
dt
dt

s (qi / ) q

0
t
yi

ij Dij qi

s 0
yi
t
t

Deformed
Configuration

Transformations under observer changes

Transformation of space under
a change of observer
y* y*0 (t ) Q(t )( y y 0 )

e2
b

e1

dQ T

Q
dt

e3

All physically measurable vectors can be

regarded as connecting two points in the
inertial frame

Inertial frame

Deformed
Configuration

e2*
e3*

These must therefore transform like

vectors connecting two points under a
change of observer

e2*

n*
y*

b*

Observer frame

b* Qb n* Qn v* Qv a* Qa

Note that time derivatives in the observers reference frame have to

account for rotation of the reference frame
dy
d T * *
dy* dy*0
v Qv Q
Q Q (y y
)) y
( * *0 (t ))
0 (ty
dt
dt
dt
dt
*

a Qa Q

d 2y
dt

d2
dt

Q (y

*
y
0 (t ))

*
d 2 y*0
d 2 y
y y
2
dt
dt 2

d y * *
d * dy*0 (t )
( 0 (t )) 2 (

)
dt
dt
dt
2

Some Transformations under observer changes

Some Transformations under observer changes

Objective (frame indifferent)
tensors: map a vector from the
observed (inertial) frame back
onto the inertial frame
* QQT

t n

e2

D* QDQT

e3

Deformed
Configuration

e2*

T0 m

e3*

e2*

Observer frame

Mixed tensors: map a vector

from the reference
configuration onto the inertial
frame

dy Fdx

F* QF

e1

Invariant tensors: map a

vector from the reference
configuration back onto the
reference configuration

Inertial frame

n*
y*

b*

Constitutive Laws
Equations relating internal force measures to deformation measures are known
as Constitutive Relations
e2

General Assumptions:
1.Local homogeneity of deformation
(a deformation gradient can always be calculated)
2.Principle of local action
(stress at a point depends on deformation in
a vanishingly small material element surrounding
the point)

e1
e3

Original
Configuration

Restrictions on constitutive relations:

1. Material Frame Indifference stress-strain relations must transform
consistently under a change of observer
2. Constitutive law must always
1 satisfy

second
law of
the
ij D
qi
deformation/temperature

s 0
thermodynamics for
any
history.
ij possible
yi

t
t

Deformed
Configuration

Fluids
Properties of fluids

No natural reference configuration

Support no shear stress when at rest

S
e2

b
R

Kinematics

e1

Only need variables that dont depend

on ref. config

Lij
ai

vi
y j

Lij Dij Wij

e3

Dij ( Lij L ji ) / 2 Wij ( Lij L ji ) / 2

i ijk

Deformed
Configuration

vk
ijk Wij
y j

vi
v y
v
v
v
i k i
Lik vk i
Dik Wik vk i
t x const yk t
t y const
t y const
t y const
k
i
i
i
v
1
1
(vk vk ) 2Wik vk i

(vk vk ) ijk j vk
2 yi
t y const 2 yi
k

Conservation Laws
vi

Dkk 0 or

0
t xconst
t y const yi
ji
y j

i v vi

yk k t y const
i

bi

ij Dij i q
t xconst
yi

ij ji

ij Dij qi

s 0
yi
t
t

General Constitutive Models for Fluids

Objectivity and dissipation inequality show that constitutive relations must have
form
Internal Energy ( , )
s s( , )
Entropy
( , ) s
Free Energy
Stress response function ij ij ( , , Dij ) eq ( , )ij ijvis ( , , Dij )
Heat flux response function qi qi , , y , Dij

In addition, the constitutive relations must satisfy

eq 2
eq

cv

where

cv ( , )

2
2

s
s

eq

eq

2
cv
eq

2 2

ijvis ( , , Dij ) Dij 0

qi , ,
0
yi yi

Constitutive Models for Fluids

ij ij ( , , Dij ) eq ( , ) ij ijvis ( , , Dij )

( , ) s

Elastic Fluid

( )
p
( 1)

Ideal Gas

cv

Newtonian Viscous

( , )

Non-Newtonian

ij eq ( ) ij
cv cv log R log s0

ij p ij R ij

ij ( eq ( , ) ( , ) Dkk ) ij 2 ( , )( Dij Dkk ij / 3)

( , )
ij eq ( , ) ij 1 ( I1, I 2 , I 3 , , ) ij 2 ( I1, I 2 , I3 , , ) Dij 3 ( I1, I 2 , I3 , , ) Dik Dkj

Derived Field Equations for Newtonian Fluids

Unknowns:

p, vi
vi

Dkk 0 or

0
t x const
t y const yi

Must always satisfy mass conservation

Combine BLM

ji
y j

bi ai

ai

vi
v
v
1
vk i
i

(vk vk ) ijk j vk
yk
t y const t y const 2 yi
i
k
1 vi v j
Dij

2 y j yi

With constitutive law. Also recall

Compressible Navier-Stokes

2
( , ) Dij Dkk ij / 3 bi ai
yi
y j

2
2 v j
1 eq 2vi

bi ai
yi
y j y j 3 y j yi

With density indep viscosity

For an incompressible Newtonian
viscous fluid

1 p 2 vi

bi ai
yi y j y j

Incompressibility reduces mass balance to

For an elastic fluid (Euler eq)

p eq ( , ) ( , ) Dkk

eq
yi

bi

vi
0
yi

vi
1

(vk vk ) ijk j vk
t y const 2 yi
k

Derived Field Equations for Fluids

Recall vorticity vector

i ijk

vk
ijk Wij
y j

ijk

ak i
v

Dij j k i
y j
t xconst
yk

Vorticity transport equation (constant temperature, density independent viscosity)

2 vk
v

2i
1

2 2vl

ijk

ijk
(bk ) Dij j k i i

y j y j 2
y j yl yl
3 yl yk
y j
yk
t

For an elastic fluid

ijk

For an incompressible fluid

(bk ) Dij j k i i
x j
yk
t x const

2i

ijk
(bk ) Dij j i
y j y j
x j
t

x const

If flow of an ideal fluid is irrotational at t=0 and body forces are curl
free, then flow remains irrotational for all time (Potential flow)

x const

Derived field equations for fluids

For an elastic fluid

Bernoulli

For irrotational flow

For incompressible fluid

eq

1
vi vi constant

eq

1
vi vi constant

p 1
vi vi constant
2

along streamline

everywhere

Normalizing the Navier-Stokes equation

Incompressible Navier-Stokes

v
1 p 2vi
1

bi i

(vk vk ) ijk j vk
yi y j y j
t y const 2 yi
k

L Characteristic length
V

Characteristic velocity

f Characteristic frequency
P Characteristic pressure change

yi Lyi
vi Vvi

t ft
p p P
b gb

Normalize as

vi
vi
p
1 2 vi
1
Eu

bi St

vi
2
yi Re y j y j Fr
t y const yi
k
Reynolds number

Re VL /

Froude number

Fr V / gL

Euler number

Eu P / V 2

Strouhal number

St fL / V

Limiting cases most frequently used

v
v
p
1 2 vi
1
Eu

bi St i
i vi
yi Re y j y j Fr 2
t y const yi
k

Ideal flow

Re
Eu

v
v
p
1

bi St i
i vi
yi Fr 2
t y const yi
k

Stokes flow

eq
yi

bi

vi
1

(vk vk ) ijk j vk
t y const 2 yi
k

V 0
v
p
1 2 vi

bi i
yi Re y j y j
t y const
k
v
1 p 2 vi

bi i
yi y j v j
t y const
k

Solving fluids problems: control volume approach

Governing equations for a control volume (review)
B
R

Example
j
Steady 2D flow, ideal fluid
Calculate the force acting on the wall
Take surrounding pressure to be zero

A4

v0

A 0

A5

d
n dA b dV
v dV ( v v) n dA
dt

v1 A

A2

v2

( p0n jdA) j A0 0v02 sin j ( p p0 )dAj 0

A3

F A0 0v02 sin j

A3

Exact solutions: potential flow

If flow irrotational at t=0, remains irrotational; Bernoulli holds everywhere
Irrotational: curl(v)=0 so

Mass cons

Bernoulli

vi

yi

vi
2
0
0
yi
yi yi
p 1

vi vi
constant
2
t

a 2V ( y V t )

r2

r ( y V t )( y V t )

e2
a
e1

Exact solutions: Stokes Flow

Steady laminar viscous flow between plates
Assume constant pressure gradient in horizontal direction

vi
1 p 2 vi
p
2 f

bi

0
2
yi y j v j
t y const
L

y
2
k

y2
h

y1

Solve subject to boundary conditions

p
y

v V 2
y2 (h y2 ) e1
h 2 L

V p h

y2
h L 2

Exact Solutions: Acoustics

Assumptions:
Small amplitude pressure and density fluctuations
Irrotational flow
Negligible heat flow

Approximate N-S as:

v
p

bi i
yi
t y const
k

cs2
t
t

For small perturbations:

Mass conservation:

Combine:

2 vi
2 p

bi
yi yi
yi t

cs

p
s const

i 0
t x const
yi
2 vi
t

cs2
2

2v j
yi y j

2
t 2

(Wave equation)

cs2

0
yi yi

yk const

2 vi
2 p

yi t
t 2

yk const

Wave speed in an ideal gas

Assume heat flow can be neglected

Entropy equation:

cv

q
s
i q s const
t x const
yi

cv cv log R log s0

p R

s cv log R log s0 R / cv exp[( s s0 ) / cv )

R / cv 1

Hence:

cs

so

p k

p
p
k 1 R
s const

Application of continuum mechanics to elasticity

u S

S0
e2

y
e3

Glassy

Viscoelastic

109

x R0
e1

Modulus G' (N/m2)

Original
Configuration

Rubbery

t
Deformed
Configuration

Melt

10

Glass Transition
temperature Tg

(frequency)-1

Material characterized by

General structure of constitutive relations

Fij ij
u S

S0
e2

x R0
y

e3

e1

Original
Configuration

b
R

t
Deformed
Configuration

ui
x j

S JF 1

Cij Fki Fkj

Bij Fik F jk
Qi

JFik1qk

Sij JFik1 kj

JF 1 F T ij JFik1 kl F jl1
S ji
x j

0bi 0

vi
t x const
i

1
1

ij C&ij Qi
0
s 0
2
xi
t
t

F* QF
B* F*F*T QBQT
C* F*T F* C

Frame indifference,
dissipation inequality

ij 2 0
Cij
ij

2 0

s
Cij

Qk

0
xk

Forms of constitutive relation used in literature

I1

I1 trace(B) Bkk
I2

1 2
I1 B
B
2

12 I12

Bik Bki

I 3 det B J 2

I1
J 2/3
I2

Bkk

J 2/3
B B
1
1
B B

I2
I12
I12 ik ki

J 4/3 2
J 4 / 3
J 4 / 3
2
J det B

B 12b (1) b (1) 22b (2) b (2) 32b (3) b(3)

Strain energy potential

W 0
W (F) W (C) U ( I1 , I 2 , I 3 ) U ( I1, I 2 , J ) U%(1, 2 , 3 )

1
W
Fik
J
F jk

ij

ij

ij

2 U
U
U
U

I
B

B
B
ij

ij
1
ik kj 2 I 3

I
I 3 1
2
2
3

2 1 U
U
U
U ij
1 U
U
I1 Bij I1
2I 2

Bik Bkj
ij
2/3
4 / 3 I
J J

I
3

J
J

2
1
2
1

3 U% (3) (3)
1 U% (1) (1)
2 U% (2) (2)
ij
b b
b b
b b
123 1 i j
123 2 i j
123 3 i j

Specific forms for free energy function

K
U 1 ( I1 3) 1 ( J 1)2
2
2

Neo-Hookean material

ij

5/ 3

2
1
1
1

2
Bij 3 Bkk ij 7 / 3 Bkk Bij 3 [ Bkk ] ij Bik Bkj 3 Bkn Bnk ij K1 J 1 ij

2i (1
i 1

Ki
( J 1) 2i
2
i 1

Cij ( I1 3) ( I 2 3)

i j 1

Arruda-Boyce

Bij Bkk ij K1 J 1 ij

5/ 3
3

Generalized polynomial function

Ogden

K
U 1 ( I1 3) 2 ( I 2 3) 1 ( J 1) 2
2
2
2

Mooney-Rivlin

U%

ij

2 i 3 i 3) 1 ( J 1) 2
2

1
11
K
2
( I1 3)
( I12 9)
( I13 27) ... J 1
2
4
2
20
1050
2

Solving problems for elastic materials

(spherical/axial symmetry)
Assume incompressiblility

e3

eR

Kinematics
rr

0
0

Constitutive law

0
F
0

0
F

dr
Brr

dR

dr
r
Frr
F F
dR
R

dr r

dR R

Frr
0
0

Brr
0
0

r
B B
R

0
B
0

0
B

e1

r e

e2

r 3 a3 R3 A3

U
I U 2 I 2 U U 2
U
rr 2
I1 Brr 1

Brr p
I 2
3 I1
3 I 2 I 2
I1
U
I U 2 I 2 U U 2
U
2
I1 B 1

B p
I 2
3 I1
3 I 2 I 2
I1

Equilibrium (or use PVW)

Boundary conditions

d rr 1
2 rr 0br 0
dr
r

ur ( a ) g a

rr (a) ta

ur (b) gb

rr (b) tb

(gives ODE for p(r)

Linearized field equations for elastic materials

Approximations:
Linearized kinematics
All stress measures equal
Linearize stress-strain relation

S0
e2

ui ui* (t )

ij Cijkl ( kl kl )
ij ni t *j (t )

on 1R

Elastic constants related to strain energy/unit vol

S T

e1
e3

1 ui u j
ij

2 x j xi

ij
xi

b j

Deformed
Configuration

Original
Configuration

2u j
t 2

on 2 R
ij

2U
Cijkl

kl ij kl

ij

2U
ij

ij

C( T )

Isotropic materials:

ij

ij kk ij T ij
E
E

R0

ij

ET

kk ij
ij
ij
1
1 2
1 2

Elastic materials with isotropy

1

1

11


22

0
33
E

(1

)(1

23
0
13

12
0

11

22

33
1

E
2 23

213

212

ij

0
0
0

0
0
0

1
0
0
0

ij kk ij T ij
E
E

0
0

0
0

0
0

1 2

2
0

1 2
2

0
0
0
2 1
0
0

0
0
0
0
2 1
0

ij

1 2
2

0
0

0
0

2 1

11

22

33
ET

2 23
1 2
2 13

2 12

1
1

1

0
0

0

11

22

33

23

13

12

1
1
1

0
0

ET

kk ij
ij
ij
1
1 2
1 2

Solving linear elasticity problems

spherical/axial symmetry
e3

RR

0
0

Kinematics
Constitutive law

Equilibrium

du
RR
dR

RR
0
0
0
0

eR

e1

u

R

du
2 dR
ET 1
1 u 1 2 1

RR
1
E

1 1 2

d RR 1

2 RR 0bR 0
dR
R

d 2u
dR

Boundary conditions

2 du 2u
d 1 d

R 2u
2
2
R dR R
dR R dR

ur ( a ) g a

rr (a) ta

1 d T 1 1 2

0b( R )
E 1
1 dR

ur (b) gb

rr (b) tb

R e

e2

Some simple static linear elasticity solutions

1
1 2

Navier equation:

2u k
2ui
bi 0 2ui

0
xk xi
xk xk
t 2
ui

Potential Representation (statics):

Point force in an infinite solid:

2i
0bi
x j x j

2(1 )
1

xk k
i
E
4(1 ) xi

Pi
4 R

2
0bi xi
xk xk

(1 ) Pk xk xi

(3 4 ) P i

8 E (1 ) R R 2

Pi x j Pj xi
(1 ) 3Pk xk xi x j Pk xk ij
ij

(1 2 )

R
R

8 E (1 ) R 2
R3
Pi x j Pj xi ij Pk xk
1
3Pk xk xi x j
ij

(1

8 (1 ) R 2
R3
ui

Point force normal to a surface:

ui

ij

(1 ) i3
R

(1 2 )(1 )
log( R x3 )

R
e3

x
(1 ) P x3 xi
(1 2 )
(3 4 ) i3

3
i

2 E R 3
R
R x3
R
P

xi x j x3

3
2 R 2
R3

(1 2 )(2 R x3 )
R ( R x3 )2

xi x j ij x32

x3 i 3 x j j 3 xi

(1 2 ) R 2

( R x )2 i3 j 3 ij
3

e1

Simple linear elastic solutions

33 0

Spherical cavity in infinite solid under remote stress:

e2

(1 ) 0
a3 (1 ) 0 (5 1)
i
x3 i3
xi 5 x3 i 3

(1 )
R3 (7 5 ) 2(1 2 )

2 2
(1 ) 0
a (1 ) 0 (7 5 ) 2
2
2
2 3 x3 a

(3x3 R )
R a

(1 )
R3 (7 5 ) 2(1 2 )
R2

(1 ) 0
5(5 4 )
2
ui
2 E
(7 5 )

a3

3 (7 5 )
R

e1
e3

a5
x3 i3
R5

2
(5 6)

(1 ) (7 5 )

a3

3 (7 5 )
R

a5

R 5

5 x32
1
xi
2

3a 3 xi x j
x32
a 2
a2

10

2 ij
5
2
2
0 2(7 5 ) R3
R
2(7 5 ) R
R
R

ij

3a 3

i3 j 3

(7 5 )

15a 3 x3 ( x j i 3 xi j 3 ) a 2
a5
(7 5 ) 5(1 2 )
3

3
5
5
2

R
R
(7 5 ) R
R
a3

Dynamic elasticity solutions

Plane wave solution

Navier equation

ui ai f (ct xk pk )
1
1 2

2u k
2ui
bi 0 2ui

0
xk xi
xk xk
t 2

0c2 ak 1 2 pi ai pk 0
Solutions:

ai pi 0

c 2 c22 0 /

ai pi c 2 cL2 2 (1 ) / 0 (1 2 )