The Roman Empire

was one of the largest

early
empires
in
history,
stretching
from
England
in
Northern Europe to
the Ancient Near East
and Africa
The pink area of the
Map
shows
the
greatest extent of the
Roman Empire
Rome, located on
the Italian peninsula
was the capital of the
empire
From the capital, an
infrastructure
of
roads
and
communication
systems
was

EVOLUTION OF ROMAN
ARCHITECTURE
Roman
architecture
refers to the architecture
of Rome and of the
Roman Empire

Ancient Egyptian Architecture

(from 3000 BC to 700 BC)
Egyptian architecture is easily recognizable, thanks to its most famous buildings
pyramids. The construction of these impressive burial places for pharaohs and their
families required between 20,000 and 30,000 workers.
Construction materials were limestone and sun-baked bricks.
Workers had to transport materials by sled and than they had to lift the blocks using
the system of ramps and pulleys.
Other Egyptian structures were temples and tombs, which were often decorated with
hieroglyphics and carvings.

The Great Pyramid of Giza

Classical architecture
(from 600 BC to 500 AD)
Symmetry ruled the ancient Greek and Roman buildings. We can still see the effects of
classical architecture in today's buildings.
Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius, who lived during the first century BC, believed that
builders should use mathematical principles for construction of temples.
Classical buildings were supported by sets of columns with decorative bands above,
called friezes (vlysy).
Greeks differentiated among three types of column Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.
Good example of early Greek classical architecture is famous Parthenon in Athens.
After conquest of Greece by the Roman Empire, builders
took many examples from Greek architecture but gave their structures more decorations.
The invention of concrete helped the Romans build arches (oblouky) and domes (kupole).
The Roman Coliseum is a famous example of Roman classical architecture.

The
Parthenon

The Coliseum

GREEK INFLUENCE
Elements of Roman architecture show very
significant Greek influence.
However, Roman functional needs sometimes
differed, resulting in interesting innovations.
The Romans were less attached to ideal forms and
extended Greek ideas to make them more functional.

Romans needed interior space for worship, whereas the Greeks

worshipped outside.

Their solution was to extend the walls outward, creating engaged

columns, while maintaining the same basic shape

Topics
Prehistory:

The Etruscans
Roman Characteristics
Building Materials
Architectural Ideals
Structural Revolution
Structures
Civic Architecture
Tombs

Introduction
Results:

From the Italian origins:

Practical sense (functionalism)
Military expansion (imperialism)

From the Etrurian

Realistic sense
Cult to the ancestors

From Greece
Philosophy
Literature
Art

Post &
Lintel
construction
LINTEL
P

GREEK

PARTHENON

Post &
Lintel
drawbacks

LINTEL

thick

narrow

thick

Roman Architecture:
Prehistory: The Etruscans
Etruscan

civilization

Preceded the Roman Empire in Italy

Most of their architecture was
destroyed by the Romans
Only hidden structures, such as tombs, were
spared

Much of their architecture was greatly

influenced by the Greeks
The legacy of Etruscan architecture
lives on through its influence in Roman
architecture

Roman Architecture:
Roman Characteristics
April

21, 753 B.C.

Pinpointed by the Romans as the day

Rome was founded
Early

Romans were militant and

very disciplined
Lacking in artistic culture

Romans

absorbed the Greek culture

Literature, philosophy, science, and

painting
New appreciation of the arts

Roman Innovation
To

the original
Greek orders, the
Romans added
two:
The Tuscan order.
The Compostite
order.

Roman Innovation
Tuscan

Order:

Like the Doric,

except this one has
a base.

Roman Innovation
The

Composite
order combined
elements of both
the Ionic and
Corinthian.
It appears to be
Corinthian
acanthus leaves,
supplemented with
volutes.

Roman Architecture:
Roman Characteristics
Roman

architecture emerged from

Hellenistic and Etruscan influences
It held many original aspects,
however
Materials and building techniques
Fulfilled practical purposes
Served commerce, industry, and shipping
Ports
Roads
Aqueducts

General Characteristics
Building

systems:

Lintelled:
Copied from the Greeks
Spaces are closed by straight lines

Vaulted
Taken from the Etrurian
Use of arches
Barrel vaults

Use of domes
Strong walls so that they do not use
external supports

General Characteristics
Materials:

Limestone
Concrete
Mortar
Arches:

They used half point or semicircular

arches
They could use lintels above these
arches
Pediments were combined with them

General Characteristics:
Building techniques

Opus incertum

Opus testaceum

Opus reticulatum

Opus spicatum

Mortar in the
foundations

Barrel Vault

General Characteristics
Walls

were made in one of these

ways:

Ashlar

Masonry

Brick

General Characteristics
Material

combinations in walls:

Roman Innovation
Composite Walls
Note

the use of a
brick outer facing
and a fill of
concrete and
rubble.

Roman

Orders:

Tuscan Order:
very plain design, with a plain shaft, and
a simple capital, base, and frieze.
Unfluted shaft.
In proportions it is similar to the Doric
order.

Composite Order:
Mixed order. Combines the volutes
(scrolls) of the Ionic with the acanthus
leaves of the Corinthian order.

General Characteristics
Greek

shapes assimilation:

Architectonical orders were used more in a

decorative than in a practical way
Order superposition
The use of orders linked to the wall created a
decorative element
They used the classical orders and two
more:
Composite
Tuscan

Architectonic Typology
Roman

Architecture has a rich typology that

includes:
Religious building: temple
Civil buildings:

Public: basilicas, baths

Spectacles: theatre, amphitheatre, circus
Commemorative: Triumph arch, column
Domestic: house, village, palace
Funerary: tombs

Engineering

Bridges
Aqueducts

works:

Model of Rome

Characteristics
1. During the Republic Temple
Architecture:
K

blended Etruscan & Greek

features.

emphasis on the front of the

building.

example: Temple of Fortuna

Virilis.

Temple of Fortuna Virilis

Characteristics
2.CONCRETE:
K created a revolution in

architectural design.

K create larger, heavier

buildings.
* example:
- The Sanctuary of
Fortuna Palestrina.

Sanctuary
of Fortuna Palestrina

Model of Roman Forum

Model
of
Trajans
Forum

Characteristics
3.ARCH & VAULT:
K Coliseum
K Race Track Circus Maximus
K Public Baths
K Amphitheaters

Triumphal
Arch of Titus

Arch of Constantine

Roman Architecture:
Building Materials
Building

materials were very important

to the success of Roman architecture
Access to a wide variety of building stone
including:
Volcanic tufa
Limestone
Travertine

Nearly unlimited quantities of white marble

Quarry opened by Augustus north of Pisa
Other varieties were imported from the Far East

Roman Architecture:
Building Materials
Brick

Romans perfected the art of brickmaking

Concrete

Perfected this material

Became the most characteristic
material in Roman structures
Was used to construct massive walls
and great vaults

Roman Innovation Massive Building

the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia
The

Temple of
Fortuna
Primigenia was a
massive
structure, made
possible by
concrete
construction.

Roman Architecture:
Architectural Ideals
Space

To the Romans, the space inside a

structure was just as important as the
exterior
Interior space was the primary focus of
Roman architecture and was shaped by
vaults, arches, and walls
Romans

were fond of extravagance

Architecture for the powerful was gaudy

and colorful, not like the ruins as seen
today

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
The

combination of arches, vaults,

and concrete in architecture are a
pure Roman creation
The individual elements had been used
in earlier civilizations
Egyptians and Mesopotamians had used
primitive arch forms
Greeks had experimented with the arch and
concrete with little success
Etruscans had constructed vault-like forms

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Arches

More intricate than a simple post-andlintel system

Formed by a multitude of small elements
that curve over space by resting against
each other in a delicate balance
Voussoirs
The elements used to create an arch
The shape of the structure keeps each
voussoir in place
Held together by their own force

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution

Photo: Sullivan

Arches strength
through
compression

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Vault

Created by extending an arch along

its axis
Merely an extended arch

Supports and provides a roof for a

given area
Types of vaults
Barrel/Tunnel vault
Cross/Groin vault
Dome

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Barrel/Tunnel

Vaults

The earliest type of vault

Appear in limited form in Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and Hellenistic Greece
Has a few limitations
Exerts a continuous load, therefore
needing constant support
Difficult to illuminate
Increases in length require thicker vault
supports

Barrel or
Tunnel Vault
K Windows can be

placed at any point.

K These vaults require

buttressing to
counter-act the
downward thrust of
weight.

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Cross/Groin

Vaults

Created to overcome the limitations

of barrel vaults
Employed by the Romans very
heavily
Formed by intersecting two barrel
vaults at right angles
Limitations
Resistant to square plans

Groin Vault
K Also called a

cross vault.

K Needs less

buttressing.

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution

Photo: Sullivan

Multi Groin Vaults

K A series of groin vaults

can have open lateral

arches that form
Clerestories.

K Windows that allow

light into the interior

of churches.

K These concrete windows

are fireproof [an

important consideration
since many early
churches burned!]

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Dome

The grandest type of vault

Types
Cloister vault
An eight-sided vault, with an octagon-shaped dome
Formed by crossing barrel vaults over an octagonal
plan
Rare in Rome, more prevalent in medieval
architecture

True dome
Perfectly rounded dome, preferred by the Romans
Built up in complete rings wherein each ring forms
a self-supporting component of the final dome

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Concrete

A mixture of mortar-like cement with an

aggregate
Many advantages over traditional stone
Does not need to be quarried, shaped, or
transported
Highly skilled labor was not needed to
prepare the concrete
Can be cast in just about any shape
imaginable
Arches and vaults could be economically
fabricated

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution
Concrete

Surfaces
Romans developed many types of facings
that were weather resistant and pleasant
to the eye
Opus incertum
Random shaped stones of concrete

Opus testaceum
Brick facing; made concrete wall look as if it
were constructed from bricks

Opus mixtum
Decorative patterns of tufa, stone, or brick

Roman Architecture:
Structural Revolution

Opus mixtum; Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman

Aqueducts

Used to supply the civilization with

water from afar
Utilized an arch to create a
continuous line of decent for water
Aqua Claudia
Brought water over solid masonry some
ten miles into Rome
Some areas were over 100 ft. in height

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman

Bridges

Were generally lower in height and

broader than aqueducts
Two important Roman Bridges:
Pons Fabricus
Pons Milvius

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman

Theatres

Adopted the Greek theatre and

transformed it
The Roman theatre was closed, unlike
the Greeks who preferred an open,
outside theatre
Theatre of Marcellus
Integrated Roman style with that of the
Greeks
Provided around 10,000 seats arranged in
three tiers

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman

Arenas

The Colosseum
Built by Flavian emperors Vespasian, Titus,
and Doitian
Located on the site of an artificial lake that
had been part of Neros Golden House
Extensive system of tunnels, chambers,
and mechanical devices below the arena
floor
Hydraulic provision used to flood the arena
for naval displays and mock battles

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman

Circuses

Circus Maximus
Oldest and largest
circus stadium
Rebuilt and destroyed
from the first through
third centuries A.D.

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman

Baths

Strenuous daily life prompted the

Romans to construct large public
baths
Wealthy citizens also constructed
private baths in their domiciles
Featured elaborate heating systems
Furnaces beneath floors
Heat was transmitted to rooms by tile
ducts, warming the floors and the walls

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman

Temples

Earliest Roman temples were

indistinguishable from those of the
Etruscans

Axial plan
Deep porch
Widely spaced columns
High podiums

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman

Temples

Temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus
Originally built in the
late sixth century B.C.
Rebuilt in 69 B.C.

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman

Temples

Pantheon
Located in Rome
Considered by many to be the greatest
structure of antiquity to have survived in a
state of near completeness
Built by Hadrian between A.D 118 and 128
Three notable parts:
Immense, domed cella
Deep, octastyle Corinthian porch
Block-like intermediate structure

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman

Basilicas

An important category of Roman

architecture
Most important Roman source for early
Christian architecture

Pure Roman style of architecture

Basilica
Essentially means a roofed hall,
rectangular in plan, sometimes with an
apse

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman

Basilicas

Basilica Ulpia
A.D. 98-117
Finest example of the
columnar basilica
Built by Trajan
Important model for
later ages

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Roman Structures
Roman

Basilicas

Basilica in Trier,
Germany
Early fourth century
A.D.
Built by Constantine
The final Roman
basilica
Served as an
important model for
the Romanesque
period of architecture
Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Civic Architecture
Houses

and Villas

Private domiciles reflected their inhabitants

Lower classes lived in meager, cramped
apartments located on the upper floors of shops
and other buildings
Middle classes lived on the lower floors and
many homes had balconies, good ventilation,
and running water
Upper classes usually owned a house, know as a
domus.
Standalone structures
Featured courtyards and gardens
Many had running water

Roman Architecture:
Tombs
Tombs

Romans were great builders of tombs

Different from the Greeks and
Egyptians in scale and religious style
Tomb of M. Vergilius Eurysaces
Citizen who made a fortune selling bread
to Caesar's army
Built a tomb in the shape of an oven

Roman Architecture:
Tombs

Photo: Sullivan

Roman Architecture:
Tombs
Tombs

Roman catacombs
Built by the poor as
place of burial

Photo: Sullivan

References
Sullivan,

Mary;
http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/
http://www.brynmawr.edu/Acads/Cities/wld/w
dpt1.html
Trachtenburg/Hyman; Architecture: From
Prehistory to Postmodernity
Wodehouse/Moffett; A History of Western
Architecture

Principles of Architectural Organization

Three forces appear to shape the direction
and form of Roman architecture
Function
Construction Technology
Adaptation to new ideas and knowledge

Roman Town Planning

Cities

were the centre of Roman

life
Need for infrastructures
Water and sewer system
Transport and defence
Public spaces and markets

Psychological effect: power and

control
There

was a need of linking them

throug paved roads

Roman Town Planning

The

plan of the city was

based on the camp
It had two main axes
Cardus E-W
Decumanus N-S
Where

the two
converged was the
forum
The rest of the space
was divided into
squares in which insulae
or blocks of flats were
built

Roman Town Planning

The

most important part of the

city was the forum, where political,
economic, administrative, social
and religious activity were centred.
Main buildings were in this forum
In big cities there were theatres,
circuses, stadiums, odeons.

Forums
The

forum, an open area

bordered by colonnades with
shops, functioned as the chief
meeting place of the town. It was
also the site of the city's primary
religious and civic buildings,
among them the Senate house,
records office, and basilica.

12/01/15

When archaeologists began

excavating the city of Pompeii,
which had been covered with ash
and mud by the eruption of Mount
Vesuvius in ad 79, they found the
remains of people, ancient
buildings, and other artifacts
preserved amid the volcanic
debris. Among the structures
uncovered was The Forum of
Pompeii, pictured, a group of
temples, courts, and palaces that
served as the citys legislative
center.

12/01/15

Walls
Defence

of cities has
been one of the capital
problems that
civilizations had to
solve in order to project
the future of their
citizens, goods, culture
and ways of life.
Romans were the first
in the technique of
improving different
kinds of defence, using
walls.

Bridges

Roman engineers were true masters building them, since constructions were
essential elements for reaching places and cities often situated at the bank of
rivers.
This location was due to defensive and infrastructural reasons -supply and
drainage.
They are characterised by:
Not pointed arches.
Constructions of ashlars masonry often with pad shape.
Route of more than 5 m. wide.
Route of horizontal or slightly combed surface "few curved".
Rectangular pillars from their basis with lateral triangular or circular
cutwaters that end before the railings.

Aqueducts

Aqueducts

were built in order to avoid

geographic irregularities between fountains or
rivers and towns.
Not only valleys were crossed by superposed
cannels, but also mountains were excavated by
long tunnels, pits and levels of maintenance.
They were used to bring water to cities.

The

Romans were the greatest builders of roads, bridges and

aqueducts in the ancient world.
They

created a system of aqueducts for Rome that brought

water from as far away as 60 miles.
The

water system in Segovia, Spain, still uses part of an

ancient Roman aqueduct.

Roman Public Water Supply

The

Romans
transported water from
far away to cities via
aquaducts.
Cities themselves were
plumbed, providing
private water for the
rich and for baths and
communal supplies for
poorer
neighbourhoods.

Paved Roads

Paved

roads were needed to reach to

any point of the empire
They facilitated both communication
and political control

Roman Roads Spanned the

Empire

All Roads Lead to Rome

Why do you think a system of roads was important to the survival of the
Empire?

Appian Way

An expanding network of roads

helped to link Rome's distant
territories.
One of the most important paved
military roads was the Appian Way,
commissioned by the Roman official
Appius Claudius Caecus.
It became the major route from
Rome to Greece.
Although these large lava blocks
may not be the original material, the
route itself has remained unchanged
and in use since it was first paved
more than 2200 years ago.

Via Appia

Paved Roads
The

roads were made with strong foundations

Different materials were put into different layers
To meassure the distance they created the
Milliarium or stones located in the sides

Section of a Roman paved road

Paved Roads

The

roads were not completely flat

They consisted of several parts
The central and highest was the most
important, it was convex to conduct the water
to the ditches that were built in the sides

Religious: Temple
It

copied the Greek

model
It has only one portico
and a main faade
It tends to be
pseudoperiptero
The cella is totally
closed
It is built on a podium
Instead of having
stairs all around, it
only has them in the
main faade

Religious: Temple
There

were other
kind of temples:
Circular: similar to
the Greek tholos
Pantheon:

combined squared
and circular
structures and
was in honour of
all gods.

The Pantheon
The

magnificent
interior space of
the Pantheon was
achieved by:
Employing a dome
over a drum.
Coffering the dome
to reduce weight.
Placing an occulus
to allow light to
enter.

The Pantheon

Pantheon plan

Interior more
spectacular
than exterior

Interior
views

Engineering marvel
Concrete!

Missing pedimental sculpture

(would have been like
Parthenon)

Pantheon comments
later used as
church

Tuscan order of columns (with

Corinthian capitals)

The Pantheon

Pantheons Dome

The Pantheon Interior

The Pantheon Interior

Painting by
Giovanni
Paolo Pannini
(18c)

Civil Buildings Basilica

Basilica

were first
built to house
audience facilities
for government
officials.
When Christianity
became the state
religion, this kind
of building was
adapted to
Christian worship.

Civil Buildings: Basilica

It

was the residence of

the tribunal
It is rectangular and has
different naves
The central nave is
higher and receives light
from the sides
The building ends in an
apse
It is covered with vaults
Barrel over the central nave
Edged over the lateral
naves

This Roman basilica was

begun by the emperor
Maxentius between 307 and
310 and completed by
Constantine the Great after
312.
Although it was one of the
most important monuments in
classical antiquity, almost all
that remains of the building
are these three huge, barrelvaulted bays

Public Buildings -- Basilica

A

large nave is
flanked by side
aisles behind a
row of
supporting piers.
An Apse draws
attention in the
direction of the
altar.

Civil Buildings: Baths

There

were spaces for

public life
They consisted of
different rooms:
Changing rooms
Different temperature
rooms:
Frigidarium (cold)
Tepidarium (warm)
Caldarium (hot)

Swimming pool
Gymnasium
Library

Caracallas Bath House

Spectacles: Theatre
It

is similar to the Greek but

it is not located in a
mountain but it is
completely built
It has a semicircular scenery
The doors to facilitate
peoples movement are
called vomitoria
It does not have the
orchestra because in Roman
plays was not a chorus
The rest of the parts are
similar to those of the Greek
theatre

Meridas Roman Theatre

Roman Theater

Theater of Marcellus

Spectacles: Amphitheatre
It

comes from the

fusion of two
theatres
It was the place for
spectacles with
animals and fights
(gladiators)
There could be filled
with water for naval
battles.

Early Roman Amphitheater

Seats about 20,000

plan

Interior of the Coloseum

Arena is Latin for the sand, coating the floor

that soaks up the blood of the combatants.

Spectacles: Circus
It

was a building for horse races and

cuadriga competitions.
It has the cavea, the area and a central
element to turn around, the spina.

Circus Maximus

300,000 seat capacity!

Commemorative monuments:
Triumphal Arches

They were usually placed at the main

entrance of cities in order to remember
travellers and inhabitants the
Greatness and strength of Roman
world.
At the beginning they were wooden
arches where trophies and richness
from wars were shown.
This habitude changed: Romans built
commemorative arches with
inscriptions.
They were a Roman creation and they
succeeded: many of them have been
constructed until the present days.
Arches were used not only for
commemorating Roman victories or
military generals: they also marked
limits between provincial borders.

Commemorative monuments:
Columns
They

were columns
decorated with relief works.
In them some important
facts were related
They were built in the
honour of a person.
The best instance of these
works is the famous Traian
Column at Rome. It is
decorated with a spiral of
reliefs dealing with scenes
of his campaigns in Danube
and with inscriptions.

Houses: Insulae
There

are urban houses

In order to take advantage
from the room in cities,
buildings up to four floors
were constructed.
The ground floor was for
shops -tabernae- and the
others for apartments of
different sizes.
Every room was
communicated through a
central communitarian patio
decorated with flowers or
gardens.

Houses: Domus

It was the usual housing for important people in

each city.
It was endowed with a structure based on
distribution through porticated patios:
the entry -fauces- gives access to a small
corridor -vestibulum-.
It leads to a porticated patio -atrium-.
Its center, the impluvium, is a bank for the
water falling from the compluvium.
At both sides -alae- there are many chambers
used as rooms for service slaves, kitchens and
latrines.
At the bottom, the tablinum or living-room
can be found, and close to it, the triclinium or
dining-room.
This atrium gave also light enough to next
rooms.
At both sides of the tablinum, little corridors
led to the noble part of the domus.
Second porticated patio peristylium, was
bigger and endowed with a central garden.
It was surrounded by rooms -cubiculum- and
marked by an exedra used as a chamber for
banquets or social meetings.

Houses: Villa

Houses far from cities, were

thought for realizing
agricultural exploitations
-villae rustica-, or else as
places for the rest of
important persons -villae
urbana-.
Entertaining villa was
endowed with every
comfortable element in its
age as well as gardens and
splendid views.
Country villae got stables,
cellars, stores and orchards
apart from the noble rooms.

Palaces
There

were the
residence of the
emperor
They consisted of
a numerous
series of rooms
Their plan tended
to be regular

Dioclecianos Palace at Splitz

Learning Objective: the

legacy of Roman
architecture & engineering.

-Architecture:

buildings

-Engineering:

The style and parts of

The designing of buildings,

roads, bridges, etc

Summary
A

clear picture of Roman

architecture can be drawn from
the impressive remains of ancient
Roman public and private
buildings.
Many of our modern government
institutions are modeled after the
Roman system, as is much of our
public architecture.
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Builders laid the cornerstone for the United States Capitol in 1793, and the building
has been the seat of the countrys Senate and the House of Representatives since
1800. The Rotunda stands 66 m (180 ft) high and is the symbolic center of both
Capitol Hill and Washington, D.C.

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Lincoln
Memorial

Jefferson
Memorial
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Review
What

type of innovations came

from the Ancient Roman
Civilization?

What

influences can we see in

our society today?

Can

you give two examples?

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Where to Get More

Information
Ancient RomeWhat Life Was Like: When Rome Ruled

the World: The Roman Empire 100 bc to ad

200.Time-Life,1997.
Adkins, Lesley, and Roy A. Adkins.Handbook to
Life in Ancient Rome.Facts on File,Reprint, Oxford
University Press,1997.1998.A comprehensive
reference covering more than 1,200 years of the
Roman Empire; includes 150 illustrations.
Amery, Heather, and Patricia Vanags.Rome and
Romans.Educational Development Center,1998.A
volume in the popular Time-Traveler series.
Connolly, Peter, and Hazel Dodge.The Ancient
City: Life in Classical Athens and Rome.Oxford
University Press,1998.Details what it was like to
live in the capital cities of the classical world.
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