Radioactive

methods

 The radioactivity log, also known as the nuclear or radiation log records the natural or
induced radioactive properties of wellbore formations.
It is typically made up of the gamma ray and neutron logs.
All atoms consist of a nucleus, containing a certain number of uncharged neutrons
and a fixed number of positively charged protons.
Some atoms have varying neutron numbers, which leads to the existence of different
isotopes of atoms.
Surrounding the nucleus are negatively charged electrons. There are the same
number of electrons and protons in a neutral atom.
If an isotope is considered unstable, with high energy, there are several ways it can
release this energy to become stable. One such method is through the emission of
gamma rays, which have no mass and no charge, a process of spontaneous decay.

Gamma-Ray Logs
- Natural radioactivity
- Gamma ray log indicates the amount of shale present
- The gamma-ray log measures the natural radiation of
uranium, potassium, and thorium
- Potassium and thorium are concentrated in the minerals
that constitute insoluble residue in carbonate rocks,
such as rock fragments and clays.

DEFINITION NATURAL
RADIOACTIVITY
Natural radioactivity is the spontaneous decay of the atoms of
certain isotopes into other isotopes. The products of decay, or
daughters, may be stable or may undergo further decay until a
stable isotope is finally created.

An -radiation particle may be emitted from an atomicnucleus

during radioactive decay. I t is positively charged and has two
protons and two neutrons. It is physically identical to the nucleus
of the helium atom *.
The alpha-particles have a very low penetration

Radioactive decay

Gamma ray

Gamma-Ray
Logs
Low Natural Radioactivity
Sandstone
Limestone
Dolomites
High Natural Radioactivity
Shale
source rock

Gamma-Ray
Logs
Many elements are naturally radioactive as
a result of basic particle physics. Gamma
ray logs measures the number of natural
gamma rays emitted by the rocks
surrounding the tool

GR tool is lowered in the borehole. The GR

tool consists of detector and receiver which
is recording the radiation

 Many elements are naturally radioactive as a result of

basic particle physics. Gamma ray logs measures the number of
natural gamma rays emitted by the rocks surrounding the tool
This is often proportional to the amount of shale in the rocks, but
there are other causes of gamma radiation. The spectral gamma
ray log breaks up the total gamma ray response into three
components, namely those due to potassium, thorium, and
uranium. These measurements are used to distinguish the
mineralogy in a shale or other radioactive minerals
The log can be run in air or mud filled open holes, and also in
cased holes, although the response is attenuated by the cement
and pipe thickness

 Radiation is naturally erratic. A stationary detector

facing a given gamma ray flux will not see a constant
stream of gamma rays. To obtain a reliable count rate,
measuring instruments record the total number of
emissions over a period of time, known as the time
constant. For most gamma ray tools, the time constant
is 1 or 2 seconds to obtain a smooth log curve. The
differences in count rates between one time constant
and another are called statistical variations.

 In gamma ray spectral logging, the three main gamma ray contributors,
potassium, thorium, and uranium, give gamma rays of different energy
levels.

By appropriate filtering, the total gamma ray flux can be separated into the
three components. This aids log analysis as thorium is a good shale indicator
when uranium masks the total GR response.
Thorium-potassium ratio and other combinations of curves can be used for
mineral identification and clay typing. Finally, uranium counts can be
subtracted from the total counts to give a uranium corrected gamma ray
curve that is easier to use and to correlate from well to well.

 Log scales may vary but uranium and thorium are usually scalle in parts
per million (ppm) and potassium in percent. Curve names may also vary
but POTA, URAN, and THOR are common.

Although total gamma ray is also presented on the log in API units, it is
sometimes useful to recalculate the total GR from the elemental GR
breakdown:
1: GRtotal = 4 * THOR + 8 * URAN + 16 * POTA
Where: URAN and THOR are ppm and POTA is in %
If uranium is known in ppm, total gamma ray can be corrected for
uranium with:
2: CGR = GRtotal - 8 * URAN
This makes it easier to use the GR as a shale indicator, especially in
unconventional (gsa shale) reservoirs.

Gamma-Ray
Logs

GR is measuring shale
volume

Gamma-Ray
Logs
The spectral gamma-ray log is displayed as two logs: the
spectral gamma-ray log (SGR), which combines all
sources of radiation, and the computed gamma-ray log
(CGR), which combines thorium and potassium sources.
At best grain-dominated fabrics (classes1 & 2), muddominated fabrics (class 3), and shaly/silty carbonates
(class 3) can be distinguished using the gamma-ray log.

Densit
y

 Density logs first appeared in 1957, based on the principle of gama

ray absorption by Compton scattering.
Early tools were called gamma - gamma density logs because they
emitted and recorded gamma rays. The log displayed counts per
second, which was transformed to density by a semi-logarithmic
transform.
Modern tools have two detectors, which allows borehole
compensation to be applied.
The tool can be used in air or mud filled open boreholes.
Experimental tools approaching commercialization are being
developed for cased hole applications.

 The density logging tool emits gamma rays from a chemical

source at the bottom of the tool
The gamma rays enter the surrounding rocks where some are
absorbed. Some gamma rays survive to reach scintillation
counters mounted about 18 and 24 inches above the source.
The number of gamma rays arriving at the far detector is
inversely proportional to the electron density of the rock,
which in turn is proportional to the actual rock density. Data
from the closer detector is used to correct for borehole
effects.
Porosity can be derived from density and can be presented as
a percent or as a decimal fraction on the log. This porosity
may still contain artifacts from shale and minerals not
accounted for by the logging computer, so this porosity is
NOT a final answer.

Density logging
The density logging tool is made
up of:
- a radioactive source of either
Cs-137 or Co-60 which releases
gamma rays with
energy ranging from 0.2-2MeV.
- a short range detector which
is found closer to the source
- a long range detector

Porosity
measurement

The formation density log

measures the bulk density of a
formation. This is done in order
to determine the total porosity. It
is also used to detect gasbearing formations and
evaporates.

This tool is a contact-type tool; i.e., the skid device must ride against
the side of the borehole to measure accurately.

Gamma rays can react with matter in three distinct manners:

Photoelectric effect, where a gamma ray collides with an electron, is absorbed, and
transfers all of its energy to that electron. In this case, the electron is ejected from the
atom.

Compton scattering, where a gamma ray collides with an electron orbiting some
nucleus. In this case, the electron is ejected from its orbit and the incident gamma ray loses
energy.

Pair production, where a gamma ray interacts with an atom to produce an electron
and positron. These will later recombine to form another gamma ray.

Photoelectric interaction can be monitored to find the lithology-related

parameter, Pe. For the conventional density measurement, only the Compton
scattering of gamma rays is of interest. Conventional logging sources do not emit
gamma rays with sufficient energies to induce pair production, therefore pair
production will not be a topic of this discussion.

To determine density porosity, either by chart or by

calculation, the matrix density and type of fluid in
the borehole must be known. The formula for
calculating density porosity is:

ma b

ma f

Where invasion of formation is shallow, low density of the

formations hydrocarbon will increase density porosity. Oil
does not significantly affect density porosity, but gas does
(gas affect). Hilchie (1978) suggests using a gas density
of 0.7 gm/cc for fluid density (pf) in the density porosity
formula if gas density in unknown.
The density log gives reliable porosity values,
provided the borehole is smooth, the formation is
shale-free, and the pore space does not contain gas.
In shaly formations and/or gas-bearing zones, it is
necessary to refine the interpretative model to make
allowances for these additions or substitutions to the
rock system.

LITHOLOGIC DENSITY TOOL

The Pe, or lithodensity log, run with the lithodensity tool
(LDT), is another version of the standard formation density
log. In addition to the bulk density (rb), the tool also
measures the photoelectric absorption index (Pe) of
the formation. This new parameter enables a lithological
interpretation to be made without prior knowledge of
porosity.
The photoelectric effect occurs when a gamma ray collides
with an electron and is absorbed in the process, so that all
of its energy is transferred to the electron. The probability
of this reaction taking place depends upon the energy of
the incident gamma rays and the type of atom. The
photoelectric absorption index of an atom increases as its
atomic number, Z, increases.
Pe = (0.1 . Zeff)

3.6

The lithodensity tool is similar to a conventional density

logging device, and uses a skid containing a gamma ray
source and two gamma ray detectors held against the
borehole wall by a spring-actuated arm. Gamma rays are
emitted from the tool and are scattered by the formation,
losing energy until they are absorbed via the photoelectric
effect.
At a finite distance from the source, there is a gamma
ray energy spectrum as shown in in the figure given
below. Variation in Gamma Ray Spectrum for Formations
of Different Densities. This Figurealso shows that an
increase in the formation density results in a decrease in
the number of gamma rays detected over the whole
spectrum.

Pe

Material

1.81

Sand

3-4

Shale

5.08

Limestone

3.14

Dolomite

4.65

Salt

5.05

Anhydrite

Application of density log

It can assist the geologist to: (1)
identify evaporite minerals, (2)
detect gas-bearing zones, (3)
determine hydrocarbon density,
and (4) evaluate shaly sand
reservoirs and complex lithologies.

Neutron logging

Neutron logging

Neutron
Logs
The neutron log depends mainly on the number of hydrogen atoms in a
formation.
It can be used in the determination of the porosity of a formation
and in the identification of the lithology of a formation.
In the determination of porosity, there are several effects to be aware of:
The Hydrocarbon effect, The Chloride effect, The Shale effect, Neutron
Emission
The most commonly run neutron log today is the compensated neutron log.
It is an eccentered dual detector log that can be run in both open and cased
boreholes

Neutron
Logs
Types of Neutron Logging Tool :
Gamma Ray/Neutron Tool
Sidewall Neutron Porosity Tool
Compensated Neutron Log

 Neutron logs all emit neutrons from a source at the bottom of the tool. In older
tools, fast thermal neutrons are sent out, which are captured by hydrogen
atoms.
Gamma rays of capture are emitted to balance the energy.
The number of gamma rays returning to the detector is inversely proportional
to the number of hydrogen atoms, which is highly related to the porosity of the
rock.
These logs record the gamma ray count rates in counts per second. Conversion
to hydrogen index or porosity was made by using a semi-logarithmic transform.
This tool is obsolete.

Generalized Neutron Logging Tool illustrates a typical neutron logging tool.

Types of Neutron Logging Tools next

lecture