The RSA Algorithm

JooSeok Song
2007. 11. 13. Tue

Private-Key Cryptography
traditional private/secret/single key
cryptography uses one key
shared by both sender and receiver
if this key is disclosed communications are
compromised
also is symmetric, parties are equal
hence does not protect sender from receiver
forging a message & claiming is sent by sender

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Public-Key Cryptography
probably most significant advance in the 3000
year history of cryptography
uses two keys a public & a private key
asymmetric since parties are not equal
uses clever application of number theoretic
concepts to function
complements rather than replaces private key
crypto

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Public-Key Cryptography
public-key/two-key/asymmetric cryptography
involves the use of two keys:
a public-key, which may be known by anybody, and
can be used to encrypt messages, and verify
signatures
a private-key, known only to the recipient, used to
decrypt messages, and sign (create) signatures

is asymmetric because
those who encrypt messages or verify signatures
cannot decrypt messages or create signatures

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Public-Key Cryptography

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Why Public-Key Cryptography?

developed to address two key issues:
key distribution how to have secure communications
in general without having to trust a KDC with your key
digital signatures how to verify a message comes
intact from the claimed sender

public invention due to Whitfield Diffie & Martin

Hellman at Stanford Uni in 1976
known earlier in classified community

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Public-Key Characteristics
Public-Key algorithms rely on two keys with the
characteristics that it is:
computationally infeasible to find decryption key
knowing only algorithm & encryption key
computationally easy to en/decrypt messages when the
relevant (en/decrypt) key is known
either of the two related keys can be used for
encryption, with the other used for decryption (in some
schemes)

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Public-Key Cryptosystems

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Public-Key Applications
can classify uses into 3 categories:
encryption/decryption (provide secrecy)
digital signatures (provide authentication)
key exchange (of session keys)

some algorithms are suitable for all uses, others

are specific to one

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Security of Public Key Schemes

like private key schemes brute force exhaustive
search attack is always theoretically possible
but keys used are too large (>512bits)
security relies on a large enough difference in
difficulty between easy (en/decrypt) and hard
(cryptanalyse) problems
more generally the hard problem is known, its
just made too hard to do in practise
requires the use of very large numbers
hence is slow compared to private key schemes
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Cryptography Outline
Introduction: terminology, cryptanalysis, security
Primitives:
one-way functions
one-way trapdoor functions
one-way hash functions

Protocols: digital signatures, key exchange, ..

Private-Key Algorithms: Rijndael, DES
Public-Key Algorithms: Knapsack, RSA, ElGamal,
Case Studies: Kerberos, Digital Cash
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Primitives: One-Way Functions

(Informally): A function
Y = f(x)
is one-way if it is easy to compute y from x but
hard to compute x from y
Building block of most cryptographic protocols
And, the security of most protocols rely on their
existence.
Unfortunately, not known to exist. This is true
even if we assume P NP.
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One-way functions:
possible definition
1. F(x) is polynomial time
2. F-1(x) is NP-hard
What is wrong with this definition?

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One-way functions:
better definition
For most x no single PPT (probabilistic
polynomial time) algorithm can compute x
given y
Roughly: at most a 1/|x|k fraction of instances x
are easy for any k and as |x| ->
This definition can be used to make the
probability of hitting an easy instance arbitrarily
small.
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Some examples (conjectures)

Factoring:
x = (u,v)
y = f(u,v) = u*v
If u and v are prime it is hard to recover them from y.

Discrete Log: y = gx mod p

where p is prime and g is a generator (i.e., g1, g2, g3,
generates all values < p).

DES with known message m: y = DESx(m)

This would assume a family of DES functions of increasing
key size (for asymptotics)
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One-way functions in
public-key protocols
y = ciphertext m = plaintext k = public key
Consider: y = Ek(m) (i.e., f = Ek)
Everyone knows k and thus f
Ek(m) needs to be easy
Ek-1(y) should be hard
Otherwise eavesdropper could decrypt y.
But what about the intended recipient, who should
be able to decrypt y?
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One-way functions in
private-key protocols
y = ciphertext

m = plaintext

k = key

Is
y = Ek(m)

(i.e. f = Ek)

a one-way function with respect to y and m?

f is not easy to compute unless k is known
So what do one-way functions have to do with
private-key protocols?
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One-way functions in
private-key protocols
y = ciphertext m = plaintext k = key
How about
y = Ek(m) = E(k,m) = Em(k)
(i.e. f = Em)
should this be a one-way function?
In a known-plaintext attack we know a (y,m) pair.
The m along with E defines f
Em(k) needs to be easy
Em-1(y) should be hard
Otherwise we could extract the key k.

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One-Way Trapdoor Functions

A one-way function with a trapdoor
The trapdoor is a key that makes it easy to invert
the function y = f(x)
Example: RSA (conjecture)
y = xe mod n
Where n = pq (p, q, prime, p, q, e random)
p or q or d (where ed = 1 mod (p-1)(q-1)) can be used as
trapdoors

In public-key algorithms
f(x) = public key (e.g., e and n in RSA)
Trapdoor = private key (e.g., d in RSA)
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One-way Hash Functions

Y = h(x) where
y is a fixed length independent of the size of x. In
general this means h is not invertible since it is many to
one.
Calculating y from x is easy
Calculating any x such that y = h(x) give y is hard

Used in digital signatures and other protocols.

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RSA
by Rivest, Shamir & Adleman of MIT in 1977
best known & widely used public-key scheme
based on exponentiation in a finite (Galois) field
over integers modulo a prime
nb. exponentiation takes O((log n)3) operations (easy)

uses large integers (eg. 1024 bits)

security due to cost of factoring large numbers
nb. factorization takes O(e log n log log n) operations (hard)

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RSA Key Setup

each user generates a public/private key pair by:
selecting two large primes at random - p, q
computing their system modulus N=p.q
note (N)=(p-1)(q-1)

selecting at random the encryption key e

where 1<e<(N), gcd(e,(N))=1

solve following equation to find decryption key d

e.d=1 mod (N) and 0dN

publish their public encryption key: KU={e,N}

keep secret private decryption key: KR={d,p,q}
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RSA Use
to encrypt a message M the sender:
obtains public key of recipient KU={e,N}
computes: C=Me mod N, where 0M<N

to decrypt the ciphertext C the owner:

uses their private key KR={d,p,q}
computes: M=Cd mod N

note that the message M must be smaller than

the modulus N (block if needed)

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Prime Numbers
prime numbers only have divisors of 1 and self
they cannot be written as a product of other numbers
note: 1 is prime, but is generally not of interest

eg. 2,3,5,7 are prime, 4,6,8,9,10 are not

prime numbers are central to number theory
list of prime number less than 200 is:
2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61
67 71 73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127 131
137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173 179 181 191 193
197 199

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Prime Factorisation
to factor a number n is to write it as a product of
other numbers: n=a b c
note that factoring a number is relatively hard
compared to multiplying the factors together to
generate the number
the prime factorisation of a number n is when its
written as a product of primes
eg. 91=713 ; 3600=243252

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Relatively Prime Numbers & GCD

two numbers a, b are relatively prime if have
no common divisors apart from 1
eg. 8 & 15 are relatively prime since factors of 8 are
1,2,4,8 and of 15 are 1,3,5,15 and 1 is the only common
factor

conversely can determine the greatest common

divisor by comparing their prime factorizations
and using least powers
eg. 300=213152 18=2132 hence
GCD(18,300)=213150=6

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Fermat's Theorem
ap-1 mod p = 1
where p is prime and gcd(a,p)=1

also known as Fermats Little Theorem

useful in public key and primality testing

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Euler Totient Function (n)

when doing arithmetic modulo n
complete set of residues is: 0..n-1
reduced set of residues is those numbers
(residues) which are relatively prime to n
eg for n=10,
complete set of residues is {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
reduced set of residues is {1,3,7,9}

number of elements in reduced set of residues is

called the Euler Totient Function (n)

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Euler Totient Function (n)

to compute (n) need to count number of
elements to be excluded
in general need prime factorization, but
for p (p prime) (p) = p-1
for p.q (p,q prime)
(p.q) = (p-1)(q-1)

eg.
(37) = 36
(21) = (31)(71) = 26 = 12

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Euler's Theorem
a generalisation of Fermat's Theorem
a(n)mod N = 1
where gcd(a,N)=1

eg.

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a=3;n=10; (10)=4;
hence 34 = 81 = 1 mod 10
a=2;n=11; (11)=10;
hence 210 = 1024 = 1 mod 11

Why RSA Works

because of Euler's Theorem:
a(n)mod N = 1
where gcd(a,N)=1

in RSA have:

N=p.q
(N)=(p-1)(q-1)
carefully chosen e & d to be inverses mod (N)
hence e.d=1+k.(N) for some k

hence :
Cd = (Me)d = M1+k.(N) = M1.(M(N))q = M1.
(1)q = M1 = M mod N
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RSA Example
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Select primes: p=17 & q=11

Compute n = pq =1711=187
Compute (n)=(p1)(q-1)=1610=160
Select e : gcd(e,160)=1; choose e=7
Determine d: de=1 mod 160 and d < 160
Value is d=23 since 237=161= 10160+1
6. Publish public key KU={7,187}
7. Keep secret private key KR={23,17,11}

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RSA Example cont

sample RSA encryption/decryption is:
given message M = 88 (nb. 88<187)
encryption:
C = 887 mod 187 = 11

decryption:
M = 1123 mod 187 = 88

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Exponentiation
can use the Square and Multiply Algorithm
a fast, efficient algorithm for exponentiation
concept is based on repeatedly squaring base
and multiplying in the ones that are needed to
compute the result
look at binary representation of exponent
only takes O(log2 n) multiples for number n

eg. 75 = 74.71 = 3.7 = 10 mod 11

eg. 3129 = 3128.31 = 5.3 = 4 mod 11

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Exponentiation

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RSA Key Generation

users of RSA must:
determine two primes at random - p, q
select either e or d and compute the other

primes p,q must not be easily derived from

modulus N=p.q
means must be sufficiently large
typically guess and use probabilistic test

exponents e, d are inverses, so use Inverse

algorithm to compute the other

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RSA Security
three approaches to attacking RSA:
brute force key search (infeasible given size of
numbers)
mathematical attacks (based on difficulty of computing
(N), by factoring modulus N)
timing attacks (on running of decryption)

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Factoring Problem
mathematical approach takes 3 forms:
factor N=p.q, hence find (N) and then d
determine (N) directly and find d
find d directly

currently believe all equivalent to factoring

have seen slow improvements over the years
as of Aug-99 best is 130 decimal digits (512) bit with GNFS

biggest improvement comes from improved algorithm

cf Quadratic Sieve to Generalized Number Field Sieve

barring dramatic breakthrough 1024+ bit RSA secure

ensure p, q of similar size and matching other constraints

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Timing Attacks
developed in mid-1990s
exploit timing variations in operations
eg. multiplying by small vs large number
or IF's varying which instructions executed

infer operand size based on time taken

RSA exploits time taken in exponentiation
countermeasures
use constant exponentiation time
add random delays
blind values used in calculations

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Summary
have considered:

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prime numbers
Fermats and Eulers Theorems
Primality Testing
Chinese Remainder Theorem
Discrete Logarithms
principles of public-key cryptography
RSA algorithm, implementation, security

Assignments
1. Perform encryption and decryption using RSA
algorithm, as in Figure 1, for the following:
p = 3; q = 11, e = 7; M = 5
p = 5; q = 11, e = 3; M = 9
Encryption
Plaintext
88

887 mod 187 = 11

Decryption
Ciphertext
11

11 23 mod 187 = 88

KU = 7, 187
KR = 23, 187
Figure 1. Example of RSA Algorithm

Plaintext
88

2. In a public-key system using RSA, you intercept

the ciphertext C = 10 sent to a user whose public
key is e = 5, n = 35. What is the plaintext M?
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41

Introduction
Discovered by Whitfield Diffie and Martin
Hellman
New Directions in Cryptography

Diffie-Hellman key agreement protocol

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Exponential key agreement

Allows two users to exchange a secret key
Requires no prior secrets
Real-time over an untrusted network

Introduction

Based on the difficulty of computing discrete

logarithms of large numbers.
No known successful attack strategies*
Requires two large numbers, one prime (P),
and (G), a primitive root of P
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Implementation
P and G are both publicly available numbers
P is at least 512 bits

Users pick private values a and b

Compute public values
x = ga mod p
y = gb mod p

Public values x and y are exchanged

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Implementation

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Copyright, 2001 by NetIP, Inc. and Keith Palmgren, CISSP.

Implementation
Compute shared, private key
ka = ya mod p
kb = xb mod p

Algebraically it can be shown that ka = kb

Users now have a symmetric secret key to encrypt

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Implementation

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Copyright, 2001 by NetIP, Inc. and Keith Palmgren, CISSP.

Example

Two Internet users, Alice and Bob wish to have

a secure conversation.
They decide to use the Diffie-Hellman protocol

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Example

Alice and Bob get public numbers

P = 23, G = 9

Alice and Bob compute public values

X = 94 mod 23 = 6561 mod 23 = 6
Y = 93 mod 23 = 729 mod 23 = 16

Alice and Bob exchange public numbers

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Applications

Diffie-Hellman is currently used in many

protocols, namely:
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)/Transport Layer
Security (TLS)
Secure Shell (SSH)
Internet Protocol Security (IPSec)
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

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Digital Signature Model

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Digital
Signature
Model

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Digital Signature Requirements

must depend on the message signed
must use information unique to sender
to prevent both forgery and denial

must be relatively easy to produce

must be relatively easy to recognize & verify
be computationally infeasible to forge
with new message for existing digital signature
with fraudulent digital signature for given message

be practical save digital signature in storage

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Direct Digital Signatures

involve only sender & receiver
assumed receiver has senders public-key
digital signature made by sender signing entire
message or hash with private-key
can encrypt using receivers public-key
important that sign first then encrypt message &
signature
security depends on senders private-key

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ElGamal Digital Signatures

signature variant of ElGamal, related to D-H
so uses exponentiation in a finite (Galois)
with security based difficulty of computing discrete
logarithms, as in D-H

use private key for encryption (signing)

uses public key for decryption (verification)
each user (eg. A) generates their key
chooses a secret key (number): 1 < xA < q-1
compute their public key: yA = axA mod q

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ElGamal Digital Signature

Alice signs a message M to Bob by computing
the hash m = H(M), 0 <= m <= (q-1)
chose random integer K with 1 <= K <= (q-1) and
gcd(K,q-1)=1
compute temporary key: S1 = ak mod q
compute K-1 the inverse of K mod (q-1)
compute the value: S2 = K-1(m-xAS1) mod (q-1)
signature is:(S1,S2)

any user B can verify the signature by computing

V1 = am mod q
V2 = yAS1 S1S2 mod q
signature is valid if V1 = V2
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ElGamal Signature Example

use field GF(19) q=19 and a=10
Alice computes her key:
A chooses xA=16 & computes yA=1016 mod 19 = 4

Alice signs message with hash m=14 as (3,4):

choosing random K=5 which has gcd(18,5)=1

computing S1 = 105 mod 19 = 3
finding K-1 mod (q-1) = 5-1 mod 18 = 11
computing S2 = 11(14-16.3) mod 18 = 4

any user B can verify the signature by computing

V1 = 1014 mod 19 = 16
V2 = 43.34 = 5184 = 16 mod 19
since 16 = 16 signature is valid
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Digital Signature Standard (DSS)

US Govt approved signature scheme
designed by NIST & NSA in early 90's
published as FIPS-186 in 1991
revised in 1993, 1996 & then 2000
uses the SHA hash algorithm
DSS is the standard, DSA is the algorithm
FIPS 186-2 (2000) includes alternative RSA &
elliptic curve signature variants
DSA is digital signature only unlike RSA
is a public-key technique

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DSS vs RSA Signatures

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Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA)

creates a 320 bit signature
with 512-1024 bit security
smaller and faster than RSA
a digital signature scheme only
security depends on difficulty of computing
discrete logarithms
variant of ElGamal & Schnorr schemes

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DSA Key Generation

have shared global public key values (p,q,g):
choose 160-bit prime number q
choose a large prime p with 2L-1 < p < 2L
where L= 512 to 1024 bits and is a multiple of 64
such that q is a 160 bit prime divisor of (p-1)

choose g = h(p-1)/q
where 1<h<p-1 and h(p-1)/q mod p > 1

users choose private & compute public key:

choose random private key: x<q
compute public key: y = gx mod p
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DSA Signature Creation

to sign a message M the sender:
generates a random signature key k, k<q
nb. k must be random, be destroyed after use, and
never be reused

then computes signature pair:

r = (gk mod p)mod q
s = [k-1(H(M)+ xr)] mod q

sends signature (r,s) with message M

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DSA Signature Verification

having received M & signature (r,s)
to verify a signature, recipient computes:
w =
u1=
u2=
v =

s-1 mod q
[H(M)w ]mod q
(rw)mod q
[(gu1 yu2)mod p ]mod q

if v=r then signature is verified

see Appendix A for details of proof why

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DSS Overview

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