Chapter 14: Host Defenses IOverview and Nonspecific Defenses

Chapter 14: Host Defenses IOverview and Nonspecific

Defenses

Defense Mechanisms of the Host in

Perspective

Figure 14.1

Barriers at the Portal of Entry: A First

Line of Defense

Figure 14.2

Figure 14.3

Immunity
Innate (nonspecific)
Adaptive (specific)

First Line of Defense

Skin and mucous membranes
Physical factors:

mucus
lacrimal apparatus of eye
Saliva
Hairs
Ciliary escalator
Urine

Chemical factors:
sebaceous glands of skin,
sebum
fatty acids
lysozyme
gastric juice

Genetic Differences in Susceptibility

Some hosts are genetically immune to the
diseases of other hosts
Particularly true of viruses

The Second and Third Lines of

Defense: An Overview
Immunology: the study of all features of the
bodys second and third lines of defense
Healthy functioning immune system is
responsible for:
Surveillance of the body
Recognition of foreign material
Destruction of entities deemed to be foreign

Figure 14.4

Self and Nonself

White blood cells must distinguish self from
nonself cells
Evaluates cells by examining markers on their
surfaces

Systems Involved in Immune Defenses

Body compartments

Intracellular
Extracellular
Lymphatic
Cerebrospinal
Circulatory

Physically separated but have numerous

connections

Body Compartments that Participate in

Immune Function

Reticuloendothelial system (RES)

Spaces containing extracellular fluid (ECF)
Bloodstream
Lymphatic system

The Communicating Body

Compartments

Figure 14.5

Immune Functions of the

Reticuloendothelial System
Provides a passageway within and between
tissues and organs
Coexists with the mononuclear phagocyte
system

Figure 14.6

Origin, Composition, and Functions of

the Blood
Circulatory system
Circulatory system proper
Lymphatic system

Figure 14.7

Fundamental Characteristics of Plasma

Hundreds of different chemicals
Main component is water (92%)
Proteins such as albumin and globulins,
immunochemicals, fibrinogen and other clotting
factors, hormones, nutrients, dissolved gases,
and waste products

A Survey of Blood Cells

Hematopoesis: production of blood cells
Relatively short life
Primary precursor of new blood cells:
pluripotential stem cells in the marrow
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
White blood cells (leukocytes)
Platelets (thrombocytes)

Differentiation

Figure 14.8

(a)

Figure 14.9

(b)

Table 16.1 (1 of 3)

Table 16.1 (2 of 3)

Table 16.1 (3 of 3)

Leukocytes
Granulocytes
Agranulocytes

Granulocytes
Neutrophils
Phagocytosis

Eosinophils
Attack and destroy large eukaryotic pathogens
Also involved in inflammation and allergic
reactions

Basophils
Parallel eosinophils in many actions

Agranulocytes
Monocytes
Lymphocytes

Monocytes
Discharged by bone marrow into bloodstream, live
as phagocytes for a few days, then differentiate into
macrophages
Responsible for
Many specific and nonspecific phagocytic and killing
functions
Processing foreign molecules and presenting them to
lymphocytes
Secreting biologically active compounds that assist,
mediate, attract, and inhibit immune cells and
reactions

Dendritic cells

Lymphocytes
Key cells in the third line of defense and the specific
immune response
When stimulated by antigens, transform into
activated cells that neutralize and destroy that
foreign substance
B cells

Humoral immunity: protective molecules carried in

the fluids of the body
Produce specialized plasma cells which produce
antibodies

T cells

Cell-mediated immunity: T cells modulate immune

functions and kill foreign cells

Erythrocyte and Platelet Lines

Erythrocytes
Develop from stem cells in the bone marrow
Lose their nucleus just prior to entering circulation
Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the
tissues

Platelets
Formed elements in circulating blood
Not whole cells
Function primarily in hemostasis and in releasing
chemicals for blood clotting and inflammation

Components and Functions of the

Lymphatic System
Lymphatic system: compartmentalized network of
vessels, cells, and specialized accessory organs
Transports lymph through a system of vessels and
lymph nodes
Major functions
Provide an auxiliary route for the return of
extracellular fluid to the circulatory system proper
Act as a drain-off system for the inflammatory
response
Render surveillance, recognition, and protection
against foreign materials

Figure 16.5 - Overview

Lymphatic Fluid
Lymph
Plasmalike liquid formed when certain blood
components move out of blood vessels into the
extracellular spaces and diffuse or migrate into
the lymphatic capillaries
Composition parallels that of plasma, but
without red blood cells

Lymphatic Vessels
Along the lines of blood vessels
Similar to thin-walled veins
High numbers in hands, feet, and around the
areola of the breast
Flow of lymph is in one direction only- from
extremities toward the heart
Lymph is moved through the contraction of
skeletal muscles through which the lymphatic
ducts wend their way

Lymphoid Organs and Tissues

Lymph nodes
Thymus
Spleen
Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)
Tonsils
Loose connective tissue framework that houses
aggregations of lymphocytes

Lymph Nodes
Small, encapsulated, bean-shaped organs
Usually found in clusters along lymphatic
channels and large blood vessels of the thoracic
and abdominal cavities
Major aggregations: axillary nodes, inguinal
nodes, cervical nodes

Spleen
Similar to a lymph node except it filters blood
instead of lymph
Filters pathogens from the blood

The Thymus: Site of T-Cell Maturation

Thymus originates in the embryo

High rates of activity and growth until puberty
Shrinks gradually through adulthood
Thymic hormones help thymocytes develop
specificity to be released as mature T cells

Figure 14.11

Miscellaneous Lymphoid Tissue

Bundles of lymphocytes lie at many sites on or just
beneath the mucosa of the gastrointestinal and
respiratory tracts
Tonsils
Breasts of pregnant and lactating women
GALT in the intestinal tract
Appendix
Lacteals
Peyers patches

Mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

Skin-associated lymphoid tissue (SALT)
Bronchial-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT)

14.2 The Second Line of Defense

Inflammation
Phagocytosis
Interferon
Complement

The Inflammatory Response: A

Complex Concert of Reactions to
Injury
Reaction to any traumatic event in the tissues
Classic signs and symptoms

Rubor (redness)
Calor (warmth)
Tumor (swelling)
Dolor (pain)

Fifth symptom has been added: loss of function

Figure 14.12

Chief Functions of Inflammation

Chief functions of inflammation
Mobilize and attract immune components to the
site of the injury
Set in motion mechanisms to repair tissue damage
and localize and clear away harmful substances
Destroy microbes and block their further invasion

The Stages of Inflammation

Figure 14.13

Process of inflammation

Vasodilation
Increased permeability of Blood Vessels
Phagocytic migration, diapedesis
Repair system
Fever: role of hypothalamus
Role of interferon

Benefits of Edema and Chemotaxis

Dilutes toxic substances
Fibrin clot can trap microbes and prevent
further spreading
Phagocytosis occurs immediately

Figure 14.14

Fever: An Adjunct to Inflammation

An abnormally elevated body temperature
FUO: fevers of unknown origin
Initiation of fever
Pyrogen (product of infectious agent) sets the
hypothalamic thermostat to a higher setting
Muscles increase heat production
Peripheral arterioles decrease heat loss through
vasoconstriction

Benefits of Fever
Inhibits multiplication of temperature-sensitive
microorganisms
Impedes the nutrition of bacteria by reducing
the availability of iron
Increases metabolism and stimulates immune
reactions and naturally protective physiological
processes

Phagocytosis: Cornerstone of
Inflammation and Specific Immunity
General activities of phagocytes
Survey the tissue compartments and discover
microbes, particulate matter, and injured or dead cells
Ingest and eliminate these materials
Extract immunogenic information (antigens) from
foreign matter

Three main types

Neutrophils
Monocytes
Macrophages

Figure 14.15

Phagocytosis
Review formed elements in the blood
types and functions

Process of phagocytosis:

chemotaxis
adherence
ingestion
digestion

Figure 16.7 - Overview

Mechanisms of Phagocytic Recognition,

Engulfment, and Killing

Figure 14.17

Figure 16.6

Interferon: Antiviral Cytokines and

Immune Stimulants

Interferon (IFN): involved against viruses, other

microbes, in immune regulation and
intercommunication
Three major types
Interferon alpha
Interferon beta
Interferon gamma

All three classes produced in response to viruses,

RNA, immune products, and various antigens
Bind to cell surfaces and induce changes in genetic
expression
Can inhibit the expression of cancer genes and have
tumor suppressor effects

Figure 14.18

Complement: A Versatile Backup

System
At least 26 blood proteins that work in concert to
destroy bacteria and certain viruses
Cascade reaction
Three different pathways that all yield similar
end results
Classical pathway
Lectin pathway
Alternative pathway

Complement System
Plasma and cell membrane proteins
Functions:
lysis of cells
mediate opsonization
regulate inflammatory response

Control: protein system

Overview of complement pathways

Figure 16.9 - Overview (1 of 5)

Complement Cascade

Initiation
Amplification and cascade
Polymerization
Membrane attack

Classical Pathway

Figure 14.19

Figure 16.12 - Overview

Figure 16.13

Figure 16.11 - Overview