EET 204 Instrumentation and Measurement

Concept and Principles of

Transducers and Sensors
Content:
1. Introduction
2. Temperature Sensor
3. Optical Sensor
4. Other Sensor

Lesson Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, students should be
able to:
define basic concept of transducers and sensors
apply in-depth knowledge in transducer's and

sensors application

Objectives:
1. To get familiarize with
several types of transducers
and selection criteria.
2. Able to apply basic
principles of operation and
application of common
transducer.

Introduction
Content:
1. Definition of Transducer
2. Types of Transducers
3. Application of Transducers
4. Advantage of Electrical
5. Transducers
6. Classification Of Transducers
7. Selecting A Transducers
8. Parameter

DEFINITION OF TRANSDUCER & SENSORS

Transducer - device that converts one form of energy into

another form of energy
sensor - device that measures a physical quantity and
converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or
by an instrument.

Sound >
Electric

Electrical > Mechanical motion >

Sound
Electrical Signal

TYPES OF TRANSDUCERS

Electrical Transducers

Converts the input measurand into an electrical

voltage/current

Mechanical Transducers

Converts the input measurand into a mechanical energy

APPLICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

Electrical Sensor

Device that capable to detect electrical signal and sent it to

another

measurand

electrical
output
excitation

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS

Electrical amplification and attenuation can be

easily done
Mass-inertia effects are minimized
Effect of friction are minimized

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS

The output can be indicated and recorded remotely

at a distance from the sensing medium

The output can be modified to meet the

requirements of indicating or controlling units

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS

The signal can be conditioned or mixed to obtain

any combination with outputs of similar

transducers or control signal

"Strive always to excel in virtue and truth." (Bukhari)

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

Active Transducer

Do not requires external power produce an analog voltage

measurand

electrical
output

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

Passive Transducer

Require external power source to operate

measurand

electrical
output
external
power

SELECTING A TRANDUCER

Operating Range

Maintain range requirements and

good resolution

Sensitivity

Sensitivity enough to allow

sufficient output

Environment Compatibility

Ability to make it applicable and

interactions

Accuracy

Subject to repeatability and

calibration error

Physical Condition

Depend on its usage

Electrical

Length and type of cable is required

PARAMETER

Linearity

Relationship between physical

parameter and resulting electrical
signal must be linear

Sensitivity

Defined as the electrical output per

unit change in physical parameter

Dynamic Range

Operating range should be wide to

permit it use under wide range of
measurement condition

Repeatability

Input or output relationship for a

transducer should be predictable
over a long period of time

Physical Size

Minimum weight and volume

Potentiometer
Electromechanical device containing a

resistance element that is contacted by a

movable slider
The motion of the movable slider may be
translatory or rotational.

The output voltage of the position of the

movable slider and is

Example: A displacement transducer with a

shaft stroke of 30 cm is applied to the circuit.

The total resistance of the potentiometer is
5k . The applied voltage VS is 5V. Calculate
the output voltage when the wiper is 9cm
from B.

Example:
A potentiometer transducer with a shaft stroke of 8.0cm is

used in circuit below. The applied voltage is 10V. The total

resistance of potentiometer R1 and R2 is 6 k. The total
resistance of the potentiometer R3 and R4 is 4 k. The initial
position to be used as a reference point is set such that R1 is
4.5 cm and R3 is 3.5 cm of the shaft stroke length (from point
A).
i. Calculate the values of R1, R3 and VE at initial position
ii. Calculate the displacements of potentiometer R3 and R4 in
the case that VE =0.Then identify the direction of the
displacement

"Strive always to excel in virtue and truth." (Bukhari)

Exercise: A displacement transducer with a shaft

of 2.0mm is used in the circuit as shown in figure

below. The total resistance of the potentiometer
R1 and R2 is 5000 and the applied voltage is
5.0V. The total resistance of the potentiometer
R3 and R4 is also 5000.The initial position to be
used as reference point is set such that R1 = R2
(i.e. when the shaft is at mid-stroke). Initially,
potentiometer R3 and R4 is adjusted so that the
bridge is balanced (i.e. VE = 0). Assuming the
shaft of the potentiometer R3 and R4 will be
moved 0.5mm towards A, what is the value of
VE?

Potentiometer senses displacement by means

of sensing shaft, which is mechanically

connected to the point or objects whose
displacement, is to be measured.
Example: Petrol-tank level indicator.In this
case, potentiometer is used to indicate/sense
the petrol level in a tank as shown in Figure
below. The output signal (voltage) is
proportional to the petrol level,v

Advantages & Disadvantages of Potentiometer

Capacitive transducer
A capacitor consists of two parallel plates

separated by an air space or by a dieletric

(insulating material) as shown in figure below
The capacitance of the pair of plates is measure
of the amount of charge that can be transferred
before a certain voltage is reached.
If the capacitance is large, more charge is
needed to establish a given voltage difference

The equation for capacitance of a parallel

plate capacitor is given by:-

the capacitive transducer works on the

principle of changing of capacitance which

may caused by:

 Advantages :

1. Required extremely small forces to operate them and

hence are very useful for use in small systems.
2. Extremely sensitive.
3. A good frequency response as high as 50kHz and useful
for dynamic studies.
4. High input impedance therefore the loading effects are
minimum.
5. The force requirements is very small and therefore
require small power to operates them
Disadvantages:
1. The metallic parts of the transducer must be insulated
from each other in order to reduce the effects of stray
capacitance, the frames must be earthen.
2. The output impedance of the capacitive transducers
tends to be high on account of their small capacitance
value this leads to loading effects.

Uses of Capacitive Transducer

1. It can be used for measurement of both linear

and angular displacements.
2. It can be used for measurement of force and
pressure. The force and pressure to be
measured are first converted to displacement
which caused a change in capacitance.
3. It can be used for measurement of humidity
in gases since the dielectric constant of gases
changes with change in humidity thereby
producing a change in capacitance.
4. It is commonly used in conjunction with
mechanical modifiers for measurement of
volume, density, liquid level, weight and etc.
"Strive always to excel in virtue and truth." (Bukhari)

Capacitive sensor is used to detect the presence

of boxes on the conveyor belt

Example: A capacitive transducer is used for

the measurement of linear displacement, X,

as shown in below. The parallel plate has a
dimension of 5.0cm X 5.0cm and is separated
by a distance of 1.0cm. The space between the
plates is filled with a dielectric material of
1.0cm thick, which has a dielectric constant
of 4.0. If the dielectric constant for air is
1.0cm, determine the value of the capacitance
when x is equal to:
(i) 0.0cm
(ii) 2.0cm

 Exercise:Figure below shows a capacitive

transducer used for measurement of linear

displacement, x. the parallel plates have a
dimension of (4.0 cm x 4.0cm) and separated by a
distance of 10 mm. the space between plates is
filled with a dielectric material with constant of
3.0.If the dielectric constant for air is 1.0,
determine the value of the capacitance when x is
equal to:
i) 0.0 cm
ii) 2.0 cm
iii) 4.0 cm
What is the effect of capacitance when the
displacement of dielectric is increased? Given o =
8.854 x 10-12 F/m.

Thermocouple
Thermocouple -thermal transducer.
It consists of a pair of wire made of different

metals that joined together at one end as shown

in below.
When there is a temperature difference
between the two ends of wire, a voltage will be
produced between the two wires Seeback
effect

The magnitude of voltage depends on :

i) the materials used for the wires

ii) the temperature difference between the
joined ends and the other ends.

The voltage of the thermocouple is given as

Normally the cold / reference temperature is

set to 0oC as shown in figure below:

Cold junction compensation

Thermocouple tables give the relationship

between the voltage for a particular type of

thermocouple and the measured
temperature when the reference junction is
at a particular reference temperature

Thermistor
Thermistors - THERMally sensitive resISTOR are

non-metallic resistors(semiconductor material)

made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxides
such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and
uranium.
Thermistor - type of resistance thermometer,
uses the change in the electrical resistance to
determine the temperature.
Thermistors have a Negative Temperature
Coefficient (NTC) resistance decrease as
temperature rises as shown in below.

"Strive always to excel in virtue and truth." (Bukhari)

Strain gauge
Strain gauge - passive transducer that uses the

variation in electrical resistance in wires to sense

the strain produced by force on wires.
It is used for measuring weight, pressure,
mechanical force and displacement.
A bonded strain gauge consists of a fine wire
looped back and forth on a mounting plate which is
usually cemented to the member undergoing stress
as shown below

Bonded strain gauge

Strain gauge is generally uses as one arm of a

bridge is shown Figure below.

This method is capable to measure the
change in resistance when the wire is under
strain.

In some cases, strain gauges are used in pairs

(active gauge and dummy gauge) to provide

temperature compensation as in Figure
below. However, only the active gauge will
respond to stress.
The dummy gauge is mounted in an
insensitive orientation to provide some
compensation for temperature effects.

Strain gauge 1 is stretch

Strain gauge 2 is compressed

APPLICATION OF STRAIN GAUGE

EXAMPLE OF STRAIN GAUGE

The strain will cause:

i) The change in length L
ii) The change in gauge resistance R

"Strive always to excel in virtue and truth." (Bukhari)

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

-Inductive position sensor
When an AC excitation signal is applied to the Primary Coil

(P), voltages are induced in the two Secondary Coils (S). The
MAGNETIC CORE inside the COIL WINDING ASSEMBLY
provides the magnetic flux path linking the Primary and
secondary Coils.
Since the two voltages are of opposite polarity, the
Secondary Coils are connected series opposing in the center,
or Null Position. The output voltages are equal and opposite
in polarity and, therefore, the output voltage is zero. The
Null Position of an LVDT is extremely stable and repeatable.
When the MAGNETIC CORE is displaced from the Null
Position, an electromagnetic imbalance occurs. This
imbalance generates a differential AC output voltage across
the Secondary Coils which is linearly proportional to the
direction and magnitude of the displacement.

 As shown in the figure, when the MAGNETIC CORE is moved from the Null

Position, the induced voltage in the Secondary Coil, toward which the Core is
moved, increases while the induced voltage in the opposite Secondary Coil
decreases.
LVDTs possess the inherent ruggedness and durability of a transformer and
truly provide infinite resolution in all types of environments. As a result of
the superior reliability and accuracy of LVDTs, they are the ideal choice for
linear motion control.

 Advantages -LVDT compared to a resistive potentiometer are that its

linearity, that is its voltage output to displacement is excellent, very

good accuracy, good resolution, high sensitivity as well as frictionless
operation and is sealed against hostile environments

Example
An AC LVDT has the following data. Input = 6.3V, output=5.2V range +/-

0.5 in. Determine:

a) Calculate the output voltage vs core position for a core movement going
from +0.45 in to -0.30in.
b)The output voltage when the core is -0.25in from the centre.
Solution
a)0.5 in core displacement produces 5.2V,therefore a 0.45 in core
movement produces(0.45x5.2)/0.5 = 4.68V
At -0.30 in core movement produces
(-0.30x-5.2)/(-0.5) = -3.12V
b) -0.25 in core movement produces
(-0.25x-5.2)/(-0.5) = -2.6V

Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD).

RTD's are precision temperature sensors made from

high-purity conducting metals such as platinum,

copper or nickel wound into a coil and whose
electrical resistance changes as a function of
temperature, similar to that of the thermistor
Also available are thin-film RTD's. These devices
have a thin film of platinum paste is deposited onto a
white ceramic substrate.
They have poor sensitivity, that is a change in
temperature only produces a very small output
change for example, 1/oC.

 RTD is a resistive device - need to pass a current through them

and monitor the resulting voltage.

Any variation in resistance due to self heat of the resistive wires
as the current flows through it, I2R, (Ohms Law) causes an error
in the readings.
To avoid - RTD is usually connected into a Whetstone Bridge
network which has additional connecting wires for leadcompensation and/or connection to a constant current source.
Relationship between temperature and resistance of
conductors : Rt=Rref(1+t)
Rt resistance of conductor at temperature t degree
Rref resistance of the reference temperture, usually 0
degree
temperature coefficient of resistance
t difference between operating and reference
temperature

Exercise
A platinum resistance thermometer has resistance of

180 at 20 degree Celsius. Calculate its resistance at

60 degree Celsius. (20 = 0.00392) ans:151.78
A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance

of 100 at 23 degree Celsius. Find its resistance at

50 degree Celsius. The resistance temperature
coefficient of platinum is 0.00392 / celsius. If
the thermometer has a resistance of 200 , calculate
the value of temperature.