Educational Research

Chapter 6
Descriptive Research
Gay, Mills, and Airasian

Topics Discussed in this

Chapter

Descriptive research
Designing and conducting
descriptive research
Self-report data collection methods

Questionnaires
Interviews

Descriptive Research

Purpose

Determines and describes the way things are

Compares how sub-groups view issues and
topics

Importance

Frequently used in research studies

Used to influence opinion
Useful for investigating a variety of
educational problems
Obj. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3

Differences from Qualitative

Research

Descriptive
Research

Uses observations
and interviews
Studies the topic
from the
researchers
perspective

Qualitative
Research

Uses observations
and interviews
Studies the topic
from the
participants
perspective
Obj. 1.4

Method

Six steps in conducting descriptive

research

Identify problem
Review literature
Select participants and instruments
Collect valid and reliable data
Analyze data
Report conclusions
Obj. 2.1

Common Errors

Lack of participant response

Low response rates are common

Difficulties interpreting the findings
without the data representing nonrespondents views

Unclear/ambiguous items

Researcher needs to develop

recording forms that collect the data
objectively and reliably
Obj. 2.2 & 2.3

Classifications of Descriptive
Research

Classified by how data are

collected

Self-report

Individuals respond to statements or

questions about themselves

Observation

Data is collected by the researcher

watching participants
Obj. 3.1 & 3.2

Survey Data Collection

Methods

Surveys represent the most common

type of self-report measures

Questionnaires
Interviews

Advantages of conducting surveys

Less time is required

Less expenses are incurred
Larger samples can be used
Obj. 4.1

Survey Data Collection

Methods

Five (5) types of surveys

School surveys

Information collected by a school

Information collected about a school

Sample surveys

Use of samples representing relevant

subgroups of interest
Obj 3.3

Survey Data Collection

Methods

Developmental surveys

Examining variables that differentiate

children at different developmental stages

Cross-sectional surveys

Collecting data from several samples at

one point in time
Surveying samples of elementary, middle,
and secondary teachers at the same time
Obj. 3.3 & 3.4

Survey Data Collection

Methods

Longitudinal surveys

Collecting data at two or more times to

measure change
Four types

Trend samples from succeeding groups are

studied over time
Cohort separate samples from a single group
are studied over time
Panel a single sample from a group is studied
over time
Follow-up a sample is studied after the
formal study is complete
Obj. 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, & 3.8

Conducting Survey
Research

State the problem

The topic must be of sufficient

significance to motivate a respondent
and justify the research effort

Select the participants

Must be able to provide the desired

information
Must be willing to participate
Obj. 4.2

Conducting Survey
Research

Constructing the questionnaire

Appearance

Visually attractive use of white space

Brief

Carefully planned content and item

formats

Clearly identify sub-topics

Use structured items if possible
Use responses that can be checked or
circled rather than written
Obj. 4.5

Conducting Survey
Research

Methods to collect data

Mailed surveys

Advantages efficient, inexpensive, easily

standardized, easy to score, anonymous or
confidential
Disadvantages low response rate, inability to
probe

E-mailed surveys

Advantages quick, efficient, inexpensive, easily

standardized, easy to score
Disadvantages can only assure confidentiality,
respondents might not have access to e-mail
Obj. 4.4

Conducting Survey
Research

Telephone surveys

Personal administration

Advantages high response rates, efficient

Disadvantages requires lists of telephone
numbers, requires training
Advantages efficient if respondents are in close
proximity to the administrator, allows for probes
Disadvantages time consuming, expensive,
requires training

Personal interview

Advantages rich complete responses

Disadvantages little standardization, takes time to
administer, expensive
Obj. 4.4

Conducting Survey
Research

Types of items

Two approaches to writing an item

Structured items closed-ended, selection

Unstructured open-ended, supply

Two disadvantages are that respondents will not

take the time to respond and the responses are
difficult to score objectively

Specific types

Scales

Likert

Semantic differential
Rankings
Checklists
Free responses
Obj. 4.6 & 4.7

Conducting Survey
Research

Qualities of good items

Address single concept

Avoid jargon
Include point of reference
Avoid leading questions
Avoid sensitive questions
Do not assume facts not necessarily true
Pretested
Provide information on how to respond

Questionnaire design

Do not crowd items

Number pages and items
Do not put important questions at the end
Obj. 4.8

Conducting Survey
Research

Constructing a cover letter

Explains what is being asked and why

Content

A brief description of the study

Contact information
Organizational endorsements and support
Deadline for responding
Stamped self-addressed return envelope
Obj. 4.7

Conducting Survey
Research

Cover Letter Characteristics

Is brief, neat, and personalized

Gives reason to respond
Gives means to respond
Promises anonymity or confidentiality

Anonymity and confidentiality

Anonymity means no one can trace the respondent to

his or her responses
Confidentiality means the researcher knows who
responded but promises not to divulge that information

Used to track respondents and non-respondents

Usually ensured by coding names when the data is
entered
Obj. 4.9 & 4.10

Conducting Survey
Research

Pretest the questionnaire

Reviews by three (3) or four (4) individuals

Provides information about deficiencies and
suggestions for improvement

Follow-up activities

Reminder postcard
Second survey with a cover letter politely
requesting a response
Telephoning a small sample of non-respondents
Obj. 4.11 & 4.13

Conducting Survey
Research

Two types of non-responses

Respondents not returning the survey

First mailings usually result in 30% - 50%

response rate
Follow-up postcards usually add about 20%
Sending a second survey with a polite cover
letter requesting participation usually adds
about 10%

Obj. 4.13

Conducting Survey
Research

Respondents not returning the survey

(cont.)

Concerns with generalizing from the results of

the respondents given the lack of information
from the non-respondents

Use of telephone interviews to collect

responses from a few non-respondents

Comparing these responses to those of the

respondents

Comparing respondents and nonrespondents on demographic variables to

ascertain any systematic differences
Obj. 4.12

Conducting Survey
Research

Two types of non-responses (cont.)

Respondents not completing items

Be certain this is taken into account when

summarizing scores
Simply adding scores will not reflect the true
score of a participant if he or she has left
some items blank
Averaging those items to which a participant
has responded takes into account his or her
blank responses
Obj. 4.12

Conducting Survey
Research

Tabulating responses

Closed-ended items

Scantrons
Electronic spreadsheets (e.g., Excel)
Statistical software (e.g., SPSS-Windows)

Open-ended items

Code answers according to perceived

patterns
Obj. 4.14

Conducting Survey
Research

Analyzing results

Total sample size and return rate

Responses to each item

Subscale scores

Average score and percentage of the

sample responding
Average score of items on the subscale

Total score

Average score of all items

Obj. 4.14

Conducting Interviews

An interview is the oral, in-person

administration of a questionnaire
to each member of a sample.

Obj. 5.1

Interview Studies

Advantages

More in-depth
Flexible
Gives opportunity
to establish
rapport
Allows immediate
follow-up

Disadvantages

May be biased by
interviewer
Time-consuming
and expensive
Requires skill

Obj. 5.2

Conducting Interview
Research

Define the problem

Identify potential interviewees
Construct an interview guide

A written protocol that indicates what

questions are to be asked, in what
order, and how much prompting and
probing is permitted
Obj. 5.4 & 5.5

Conducting Interview
Research
Interview Guide (continued)

Assures that all interviews will be

conducted in the same manner
Generally uses semi-structured and
unstructured items

Pretest the interview

Identifies deficiencies and suggests

improvements
Obj. 5.5 & 5.6

Conducting Interview
Research

Administer the interview

Conducting an interview effectively

requires training, effective communication
skills, and good interpersonal skills
Guidelines

Be as brief as possible
Explain terms that the interviewee might not
understand
Do not use leading questions
Do more listening and less talking
Obj. 5.3

Conducting Interview
Research

Record the responses

Manually recording

Cumbersome and slow

Likely to miss important information

Mechanical recording

Cassette tapes and videos

Captures most, if not all, of the information
Permits reviewing of the information
Causes potential discomfort on the interviewees
part
Can malfunction
Obj. 5.7