Review of AC Circuits

Smith College, EGR 325

March 27, 2006

Objectives
Power calculations and terminology
Expand understanding of electrical
power
from simple linear circuits to
a high voltage power system

Overview
Basic Circuits

Sinusoidal waveform representation

Root mean square
Phase shift
Phasors
Complex numbers
Complex impedance

Electric Power
Complex: real & reactive power
Power factor and power factor correction
3

ac Waveform

v Vmax sin t
2 f
f is the frequency of the waveform

How AC is Generated
Stator

S
Rotor
Windings
5

How AC is Generated
f

270

900

N
Angle

S
1800

3600

X
6

AC Phasor Representation
v

v Vmax sin t
Vmax
Vrms V
2

2 f 377 rad / sec

7

V1
V2

Reference

v1

v2

V1 V10
V2 V2

v1 V1max sin t
v2 V2 max sin (t )
8

V1
V2

Reference

v1

v2

V1 V10
V2 V2

v1 V1max cos t
v2 V2 max cos (t )
9

Phasors
V Vm e

Vm

v1 (t ) Re Ve

jt

10

Representing Power

11

Power Calculations
P = VI
P = I 2R
P = V2/R

S = VI
S = I2Z
S = V2/Z

12

Resistance Impedance

Resistance in
Capacitance in F
Inductance in H
Z = R + jX

13

Instantaneous Electric Power [p(t)]

v(t ) Vmax sin(t )
i (t ) I max sin(t )
V

(t ) v(t ) * i (t ) Vmax I max sin(t ) sin(t )

Vmax I max
(t )
[cos( ) cos(2t ) ]
2
Fixed average

Zero average

14

Instantaneous vs. Average Power

1
1
p (t ) Vm I m cos( v i ) Vm I m cos(2t v i )
2
2

15

Instantaneous vs. Average Power

Instantaneous power is written as

1
1
p (t ) Vm I m cos( v i ) Vm I m cos(2t v i )
2
2
The average of this expression is

1
P Vm I m cos( v i )
2
16

Real & Reactive Power Time Domain

Vmax I max
p (t )
[cos( vi ) cos(2t vi ) ]
2

p (t ) P Q(t )

Q(t)
t

t
17

Complex Power
IMPORTANT
is the power factor angle

S V I

I I

S V I V0 I VI
*

S V I cos j V I sin
S P j Q
Real Power

Reactive Power

18

Example: Current Flow

19

Example: Power Flow

20

Power System
Operations

21

Operating Challenges
Load is stochastic and is not
controlled
Power flows cannot be directed or
controlled
Electricity cannot be stored
Everything happens in real-time
Generation can be controlled

22

Power System Variables

Generators produce complex power
S = P + jQ
Real power, P, able to perform useful
work
Reactive power, Q, supports the system
electromagnetically

Single system frequency, f

Voltage profile, V
23

Real Power Flow Voltage Relation

Voltage (pu)

In normal system operation, frequency/real-power

dynamics are decoupled from voltage/reactive-power

Power (pu)

24

Real Power and Frequency

P and f dynamics are coupled
Demand > Supply: frequency will decrease
(more energy drained from system than produced,
acts like brakes on the turbines)

Supply > Demand: frequency will increase

(more energy in the power system than consumed,
acts like an accelerator so turbines spin faster)

Generation-based frequency regulation

Generator inertia
Generator governors
25

Frequency Problems
Imbalances in supply and demand beyond
the capabilities of these generator controls
Load may be dropped, or shed by operators
Equipment protection may disconnect
generators
Operators may disconnect regional tie lines

26

Reactive Power Analogy

Voltage and reactive power allow real power
to flow
Reactive power
Energy stored in capacitance and inductance
Supports the electromagnetic fields along
transmission lines
Cannot be transmitted long distances

Analogy
Inflatable water pipes
27

Voltage Collapse
The real power demanded is above the
transfer capability of a transmission line
Return to the water pipe analogy
Load draws too much power dips into the
stored reactive power collapses the pipe

Equations: P = V*I, I = V/Z

Load wants more power: Decrease apparent
impedance (Z), to increase current draw (I),
which allows increased P
But, if P at limit, result is to decrease V

28

Voltage (pu)

Real Power Flow Voltage Relation

Power (pu)
29

Power System Response to Outages

Power flows on the paths of least
impedance
As elements are removed (fail), the
impedance changes and so power flows
change Instantaneously
Human and computer monitoring of and
reaction to problems is on a much slower
timescale
30