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Chapter 6

Management
of Process
Quality
Product Inspection Vs Process
Control
A Brief History of Quality
Control
 Concept of Quality have
traced as far back as
3000 B.C. in Babylonia
 Among the references to
quality from code of
Hammurabi, ruler of
Babylonia is the
following excerpt:
“ The mason who builds a
house which falls down
and kills the inmate shall
be put to death”
A Brief History of Quality
Control
 Following the Industrial Revolution and resulting factory
system, quality and process control began to take some
characteristics that we know today.

 Specialization of labor and quality control took a giant step


forward in 1911 with the publication of Fredrick Winslow
Taylor’s book Principles of Scientific Management.

 Taylor’s philosophy was one of extreme functional


specialization and he suggested eight functional bosses for
the shop floor, one of who was assigned task for
INSPECTION.
 Taylor later conceded that extreme functional
specialization has its disadvantages, but his notion of
process analysis and quality control by inspection of final
product still lives on in many firms today.
Difference Between QA, QC and
Testing
 Many people and organizations are confused about the difference
between quality assurance (QA), quality control (QC), and testing.
They are closely related, but they are different concepts.
 Quality Assurance: A set of activities designed to ensure that the
development and/or maintenance process is adequate to ensure a
system will meet its objectives.
 Quality Control: A set of activities designed to evaluate a developed
work product.
 Testing: The process of executing a system with the intent of
finding defects. (Note that the "process of executing a system"
includes test planning prior to the execution of the test cases.)
What is Product Inspection?

 This is historical or traditional approach in


which product is check for quality when it
is already completed or manufactured.
 In this case a variation or defect is
already occurred and nothing could be
done to correct it.
 This also known as feedback quality
control system.
What is Process?

 Does it begin with the material


inspection at the receiving end?
What is process?

 Does it begin with design and end


with delivery to the customer?
What is process?

 Does it begin with the market


research and end with after sales
service?
Definition of process

 A process is a set of causes and conditions


and a set of steps comprising an activity
that transform inputs into outputs.

For example consider the number of


processes involved in airline industry: the
process of taking and confirming a
reservation, baggage handling, loading of
passengers, of meal services etc.
Characteristics of process

 The process is any set of people, equipment, procedures, and


conditions that work together to produce a result -an output.
 The process is expected to add value to the inputs in or to produce
an output.
 The ratio of output to input is called productivity and the objectives
are:
– To increase the ratio of output to input and
– Reduce the variation in the output of the process.
 If the variation is too small or insignificant to have any effect on the
usefulness of the product or service, the output is said to be within
tolerance.
 Should the output fall outside the desired tolerance, the process can
be improved and returned to tolerance by defining cause of the
change (the problem) and taking action to make sure that cause does
not recur.
Definition of Process
Control
 The broader definition of
process, which matches
the concept of TQM is:
The process begin with
the concept of the
product idea and extend
through the life cycle of
the product to the life
cycle of product to
ultimate maturity and
phase out.
The Key Elements of Process Quality
By Baldrige National Quality Awards

 The key elements of process management are: R&D,


design, management of process quality for all work
units and suppliers, systematic quality improvement,
and quality assessment.
 Here it is defined as:
– Design and introduction of quality products and
services
– Process management: product and service
production and delivery process
– Process management: business processes and
support services.
– Supplier quality
– Quality assessment
Management of Process
Quality: The Baldrige Criteria
 It is apparent that Baldrige Definition of
Management of Process Quality is directly
related to how well the processes are
managed.
 All of the processes in the organization are
directly or indirectly related to quality as the
customer defines it.
 Now the control component (QA) has moved
form measuring output (the traditional
control system) to controlling the continuous
improvement of the processes.
The TQM Based Model of Process Control

Control
Quality
Assurance

Continuous
Improvement

INPUT PROCESSES OUTPUT CUSTOMER


People Product External
Material or And
Energy Services Internal
Equipment
Methods
Money

Continuous
Improvement
Moving form Inspection to Process Control

 The idea behind process control is to prevent the


variation or defect from happening.

 What is needed is the feedforward system that is


opposed to product inspection (feedback system)

 However, process control still requires measurement


that is determined by inspection, but the activity of
inspection is now transformed into a diagnostic role.

 The objective is not to merely discover defects but


rather to identify and remove the cause(s) of defects
or variation.
Statistical Process (Quality) Control

 One of the best technical tools for improving


product and service quality is statistical
Process Control.

 It involves the use of statistical techniques,


such as control charts, to analyze a work
process or its output.

 The data can be used to identify variations


and to take countermeasures to improve the
capability of the process.
The points to remember!

 The term statistical process control can be


misleading because it is so frequently confined
to manufacturing processes whereas the
method can be useful for improving results in
other non-manufacturing areas such as sales
and staff activities.

 The statistical process control is equally


applicable in many of the activities and
functions of service industry.
Basic Approach to Statistical
Process Control
 Statistical process control were initially developed in
the United States in the 1930s and 1940s by W.A.
Shewhart, W.E. Deming and J.M. Juran and others.

 The basic approach contains the following steps:


1. Awareness that a problem exists.
2. Determine the specific problem to be solved.
3. Diagnose the causes of the problem.
4. Determine and implement remedies to solve the
problem.
5. Implement controls to hold the gains achieved by
solving the problem.
7 QC Tools

 One of the technical tools for improving product and


service quality is Statistical Process Control (SPC)

 There are 7 basic techniques. Since first four


techniques are not really statistical, the word
statistical is somewhat of a misnomer.

 This technical tool not only controls the process but


has the capability to improve it as well.
Basic Approach to Statistical
Quality Control: 7 QC Tools

1. Pareto Diagram
2. Process Flow Chart
3. Cause-and-Effect Diagram
4. Check Sheet
5. Histograms
6. Control Chart
7. Scatter Diagram
Pareto Diagram
 In 1879, the famous Italian economist Alfred
Pareto, noticed that 80% of Italy’s wealth was
controlled by 20% of the population. This concept
is known as Pareto’s law or Pareto’s rule or
Principle of imbalance or simply 80/20 rule.
 Subsequently, people in various disciplines and
professions noticed that this same 80/20 applied, in Alfred Pareto
a broad way, to a wide range of phenomena. (1848-1923)

 Dr. Joseph Juran also recognized this concept as


universal that could be applied to many fields. He
coined the term vital few and useful many.
 Dr. Juran and Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa popularize the
use of this chart in the field of Quality Assurance.
Pareto Diagram
Pareto Diagram

 When and why Pareto Chart is used in the Statistical


Quality Control?
 Pareto chart are used to show those vital few characteristics of a
process that need attention to direct the resources to take necessary
action.
 Examples of vital few are:
 A few customers account for majority sales
 A few processes account for bulk of scrap or rework cost.
 A few nonconformities account for the majority of customer
complaints.
 A few product account for the majority of the profit
 A few items account for the bulk of inventory.
Construction of Pareto
Chart
 Construction of Pareto Chart is simple.
There are five steps:
1. Determine the method of classifying data: by
problem, cause, non-conformity, and so forth.
1. Decide if Money (Rs), frequency, or both are to
be used to rank the characteristics.
1. Collect data for an appropriate time interval or
use historical data.
1. Summarize the data and rank order categories
from largest to smallest.
1. Construct the diagram and find vital few.
Process Flow Diagram
Process Flow Diagram

 A flow chart is a pictorial representation showing all


the steps and processes involve in the operation.
 The diagram makes it easy to visualize the entire
system, identify potential trouble spots, and locate
control activities.
 It answers the question, “Who is the next customer?”
 Improvements can be accomplished by changing,
reducing, combining, or eliminating steps.
Process Flow Diagram

 What are the benefits of using Flow Chart in


improving quality?
Following items can be analyzed to improve
system in the organization:
– Time-per-event (reducing cycle time)
– Process repeats (preventing rework)
– Duplication of effort (identifying and eliminating
duplicated tasks)
– Unnecessary tasks (eliminating tasks that are in the
process for no apparent reason)
– Value-added versus non-value-added tasks
Cause-and-Effect Diagram

 A cause-and-effect (C&E)
diagram is designed to
represent a meaningful
relationship between effect and
its causes.

 It was developed by Dr. Kaoru


Ishikawa and is sometimes
refer to as an Ishikawa
diagram or a fishbone
diagram because of its shape.
Cause-and-Effect Diagram

 C&E diagrams are used to investigate either a


“bad” effect or problem and to correct the
causes or a “good” effect and to learn those
causes that are responsible.
 It’s a brainstorming or idea generating
technique and usually done by a project team.
 The C&E diagrams has nearly unlimited
application in research, manufacturing,
marketing, office operations, services, etc.
Selection of Causes for C&E Diagram

Causes in a typical diagram are normally arranged into


categories, the main ones of which are:

The 6 M's (Recommended for manufacturing industry)


– Machine, Method, Materials, Measurement, Man and Mother
Nature (Environment)

The 8 P's (Recommended for administration and service


industry).
– Price, Promotion, People, Processes, Place / Plant, Policies,
Procedures & Product (or Service)

The 4 S's (Recommended for service industry).


– Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills
How to Construct a C&E Diagram

Material Man

Problem
or
an Effect

Machine Method
How to Construct a C&E Diagram

Material Man

Problem
or
an Effect

Machine Method
How to Construct a C&E Diagram

3
Material Work
2 No instructions
Cheap
Method
Solvents Wrong Too thin
Type
Paint over
Contaminated dirt
1 Too thick
5 House
Dirt
Paint
Bad bristle Air pollution Peeling
Humidity
Paint Brush Temperature

Dirty
Acid rain
4
Machine Environmen
t
Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Check Sheets

 The check sheet also called defect concentration


diagram is a simple document that is used for collecting
data in real-time and at the location where the data is
generated
 The main purpose of check sheets is to ensure that the data
is collected carefully and accurately by operating personnel.
 Data should be collected in such a way that it should be
quickly and easily used and analyzed.
 A defining characteristic of a check sheet is that data is
recorded by making marks ("checks") on it.
 Check sheets have no standard format. It is based on the
creativity of data collector and it design depends on the
requirement, recording and marking of data.
Check Sheets

 When to use
– When data can be observed and collected
repeatedly by the same person or at the same
location.

– When collecting data on the frequency or


patterns of events, problems, defects, defect
location, defect causes, etc.

– When collecting data from a production


process.
Check Sheets

Check Sheet of Reworked Jobs


Weeks
Deptt
No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4 No.5 No.6 No.7 No.8 Total

11 4

66 7

55 20

22 10

Others 4
Histograms
 A histogram is a graphical display of tabulated frequencies.
 A histogram is the graphical version of a table which shows what
proportion of cases fall into each of several or many specified
categories.
 It differs from a bar chart in that it is the area of the bar that
denotes the value, not the height, a crucial distinction when the
categories are not of uniform width.
 Histograms can give sufficient information about a quality
problem to provide a basis for decision making without further
analysis.
 A histogram is like a snapshot of process showing the variation.
 Histograms can determine the process capability, compare with
specifications, suggest the shape of population, and indicate
discrepancies in data such as gaps.
Histograms
When to use histograms

 When the data are numerical.


 When analyzing whether a process can meet the customer’s
requirements.
 When analyzing what the output from a supplier’s process looks
like.
 When seeing whether a process change has occurred from one
time period to another.
 When determining whether the outputs of two or more processes
are different.
 When you wish to communicate the distribution of data quickly
and easily to others
Control Chart

 The control chart, also known as the 'Shewhart


chart' or 'process-behavior chart' is a
statistical tool intended to help assess the nature
of variation in a process and to facilitate
forecasting and management.
 Variations occur in a process due to many sources
such as equipment, materials, environment, and
operator. Walter Andrew Shewhart

1891-1967

 A control chart always has a central line for the


average, an upper line for the upper control limit
and a lower line for the lower control limit.
Control Chart
Run Chart
3.5
2

3.5

3.4
8
Subgroup average

3.4
6

3.4
4

3.4
2

3.4

3.3
8

3.3
6
5 10 1 20 25
3.3
4 5
Subgroup number
3.3
2

3.3
Control Chart
A True Control Chart
3.5 Upper Control Limit
2 (UCL)

3.5

3.4
8
Subgroup average

3.4
6

3.4
4

3.4
2

3.4

3.3
Lower Control Limit
8
(LCL)

3.3
6
5 10 1 20 25
3.3
4 5
Subgroup number
3.3
2

3.3
Practical Example of Run
Electronic Run Chart
Elpro Readings
Every Two Minutes
Scatter Diagram

 Scatter diagram is the simplest way to


determine the cause-and-effect
relationship between two variables.
 Examples of cause-and-effect relationships
are:
– Cutting speed and tool life
– Temperature and lipstick hardness
– Training and errors
– Breakdowns and equipment age
– Accidents and years with the organization.
Example of Scatter Diagram

Data on Automotive Speed vs Gas Mileage


Sample Speed Mileage Sample Speed Mileage
Numbers (mi/hr) (mi/gal) Number (mi/hr) (mi/hr)
1 30 38 9 50 26
2 30 35 10 50 29
3 35 35 11 55 32
4 35 30 12 55 21
5 40 33 13 60 22
6 40 28 14 60 22
7 45 32 15 65 18
8 45 29 16 65 24
Scatter Diagram of Speed and
Gas Mileage
40
Gas mileage – mi/gal

30

20

10

0
30 40 50 60 70
80
Speed – mi/h
Scatter Diagram of Speed and
Gas Mileage
40
Gas mileage – mi/gal

30

20

10

0
30 40 50 60 70
80
Speed – mi/h
END OF CHAPTER 6

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