1

By
Khairun Nisa Berawi, dr

Introduction to Physiology

What is Physiology?
Physiology is the study of how living organism work

THE FIELD OF PHYSIOLOGY

1. Viral Physiology
2. Bacterial Physiology
3. Cellular Physiology
4. Plant Physiology
5. Human Physiology

More complex

Physiology of cell
Characteristic of Life
1.

Organization is the condition in which the part of

an organism have relationship to each other and the
parts interact to perform specific functions.

2.

Metabolism is all of the chemical reactions taking

place in an organism

3.

Responsiveness is the ability of an organism to

sense changes in its external or internal environment
and adjust to those changes

Physiologi of cell
4.

Growth happens when cells increase in size or number which

produces an overall enlargement of all or part of the organism

5.

Development includes the changes an organism undergoes

through time; it begins with fertilization and ends at death.
Development usually involves growth, differentiation (change
in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized),
and morphogenesis (change in shape of tissues, organs, and the
entire organism).

6.

Reproduction is the formation of new cells or new organisms

References
1. Textbook of MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY by Arthur C. Guyton
and John E Hall.
10th Edition.
W.B. SAUNDERS
COMPANY
2. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY.
The mechanism of Body
Function. Arthur Vander; James Sherman; Dorothy Luciano.
8th Ed. 2001. McGraw-Hill
3. ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY by Rod R. Seeley, Trent D.
Stephens, and Philip Tate. 6th Edition. 2003. McGraw-Hill.
www.mhhe.com/seeley6

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE

After attending the course of Physiology, student would be able
to apply the principle normal value of body organ functions to
evaluate the disease

SCOPE OF PHYSIOLOGY
1. Characteristics of life
2. Homeostasis

Characteristic of Life
1. Organization is the condition in which the part of an
organism have relationship to each other and the parts interact
to perform specific functions.
2. Metabolism is all of the chemical reactions taking place in an
organism
3. Responsiveness is the ability of an organism to sense
changes in its external or internal environment and adjust to
those changes

4. ..

1
0

11

4. Growth happens when cells increase in size or number which

produces an overall enlargement of all or part of the organism
5. Development includes the changes an organism undergoes
through time; it begins with fertilization and ends at death.
Development usually involves growth, differentiation (change
in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized),
and morphogenesis (change in shape of tissues, organs, and
the entire organism).
6. Reproduction is the formation of new cells or new organisms.

Homeostasis

12

Homeostasis is the condition in which body function, fluids, and other

factors of the internal environment are maintained at levels suitable
to support of life
Negative feedback
a. Negative-feedback mechanisms operate to maintain homeostasis
b. Many negative-feedback mechanism consist of a receptor, control
center, and effector
Positive Feedback
a. Positive-feedback mechanisms usually increase deviation from
normal
b. Although a few positive-feedback mechanisms normally exist in the
body, body positive-feedback mechanism are harmful

Negative Feedback
a. Components of negative feedback control system
b. Negative feedback control of body temperature

b. Negative feedback control of body

temp.
a. Component of a negative
feedback control
a.Feed
Back
a.Deviation in controlled variable
a.Controll variable restored to normal
b.Fall in body temp.bellow set point
b.Increase in body temp.to set point

a.Sensor
b.Temp.-monitoring nerve cells

a.Integrator
b.Temp.control center

b.Neg.
FB

a.Compensatory response
b.Up heat prodc.through shivering
Other means

a.Effector(s)
b.Skeletal muscles
(and other effectors)

Interdependent relationship of cells, body system and

homeostasis

The depicted interdependent relationship sewrves as the

foundation for modern-day physiology; homneostasis is

essential for the survival of cells, body system maintain
homeostasis, and cells make up body system
maintain
Body systems

Homeostasis

Is essential for
survival of

Make up
Cells

PHYSIOLOGY IN MEDICAL FACULTY OF UNILA

DIVISION

SCU

SMS

PHYSIOLOGY I

(3 0)

3rd

MATERIALS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

PHYSIOLOGY II

(2 3)

4th

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

PHYSIOLOGY III

(2 3)

5th

Introduction to Physiology
Cell and Muscle Physiology
Neurophysiology
Endocrine Physiology
Reproductive Physiology
Respiratory Physiology
Special senses
Gastrointestinal Physiology
Metabolism & Temperature Regulation
Laboratory Practice

Cardiovascular Physiology
2. Blood
3. Renal Physiology & Body Fluids
4. Laboratory Practice
1.

15

16

17

Specific Instructional Objective

After attending the cell discussion, student would be able to
explain the molecular factors that responsible for the principle
function of the cells as the smallest basic units of life

The main function of the cell

18

1. Basic unit of life. The cell is the smallest part; retain the
characteristic of life
2. Protection and support. Cells produce and secrete various
molecules that provide protection and support of the body
3. Movement. All the movements of the body occur because of
molecules located within the specific cells.
4. Communication. Cells produce and receive chemical and
electrical signal that allow them to communicate with one
another
5. Cell metabolism and energy release. The chemical reactions that
occur within the cells are referred to collectively as cell
metabolism. Energy released during metabolism is used for the
cell activities.
Sub topic ..

19

SUBTOPICS
1. How we see cells
2. Plasma membrane
3. Movement through the plasma membrane
4. Overview of cell metabolism
5. Cellular aspects of aging

20
1. How we see the cells
We use:
1. Light microscope
To see general feature of the cell

2. Electron microscope
To study the fine structure

3. Scanning electron microscope

To see the cell and internal structure surface

4. Transmission electron microscope

To see through part of the cell and discover other aspect of the cell structure
The cell ..

The Cell Theory

1.
2.
3.

All organisms are composed of cells

Cells are the basic units of structure
and function in organism
All cells come from preeexiting cells

From Cells to System

Levels of Organization in body:

- Chemical level
- Cellular level
- Tissue level
- Organ level
- Body system level
- Organism level

The cell

23

(Fig.1C)

EUKARYOTIC ORGANELLES
AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
GENERAL FUNCTION : MANUFACTURE
Nucleus : DNA synthesis; RNA synthesis; assembly of ribosomal
subunits (in nucleus)
Ribosomes : polipeptide (protein) synthesis
Rough ER : Synthesis of membrane proteins, secretory proteins, and
hydrolytic enzymes; formation of transport vesicles
Smooth ER : Lipid synthesis; carbohydrate metabolism in liver cells;
detoxification in liver cells; calsium ion storage
Golgi apparatus : Modification, temporary storage, and transport of
macromolecules; formation of lysosomes and transport vesicles
GENERAL FUNCTION: BREAKDOWN
Lysosomes : Digestion of nutrients, bacteria, and damaged organelles;
destruction of certain cells during embryonic development
Peroxisomes ; Diverse metabolic processes, with breakdown of H2O2
by product
Vacuoles : Digestion (like lysosomes) ; storage of chemicals; cells
enlargement; water balance

EUKARYOTIC ORGANELLES
AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
GENERAL FUNCTION : ENERGY PROCESSING
Chloroplasts (in plants and some protists): Conversion of
light energy to chemical of sugars
Mitochondria : conversion of chemical energy of ATP
GENERAL FUNCTIONS : SUPPORT, MOVEMENT, AND
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CELLS
Cytoskeleton (including cillia, flagella, centriols in animal
cells)
Cell walls
Extracellular matrix (in animal)
Cell junction

Assignment

Define cytoplasm and cytosol

What are the two general functions of the cytoskeleton?

Describe and list the function of microtubules, actin filaments, and

intermediate filaments

Define and give examples of cytoplasmic inclusions. What are

lipochromes?

Define organelles

Describe and list the functions of chromosomes. Explain the structure of

centrioles

What are spindle fibers? Explain the relationship between centrosomes,

spindle fibers, and kinetochores of chromosomes during cell division

8.

Contrast the structure anf function of cilia and flagella

9.

Describe the structure and function of microvilli. How are microvilli

different from cilia?

10. What kinds of molecules are in ribosomes? Where are the ribosomal
subunits formed and assembled?
11. Compare the functions of free ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum
ribosomes
12. How is the endoplasmic reticulum related to the nuclear envelope? How
are the cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum related to the rest of the
cytoplasm?
13. What are the functions of smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
14. Describe the structure and function of the Golgi apparatus

15. Describe the production of a protein at the endoplasmic reticulum and its
distribution to the Golgi apparatus. Name three ways in which proteins
are distributed from the Golgi apparatus
16. Define secretory vesicles
17. Describe the process by which lysosomal enzymes digest phagocytized
materials. Define autophagia
18. What is the function of peroxisomes? How does catalase protect cells?
19. Describe the structure and function of proteasomes
20. What is the function of mitochondria? What enzyme are found on the
cristae and in the matrix? How can the number of mitochondria in a cell
increase?
21. How might a cellular clock, death genes, DNA damage, free radicals, or
mitochondrial damage contribute to cellular aging?

2. Plasma membrane

1. The outermost component of a cell

2. Consists 45 50% lipids, 45 50% proteins, 4 8% carbohydrate
3. .

30

2. Plasma membrane

3.
4.

31

Carbohydrates combine with lipid to form glycolipids, and with protein to form
glycoproteins. Glycocalyx is the collection of carbohydrates, glycolipids, and
glycoproteins on the outer surface of the plasma membrane
.

2. Plasma membrane

4.

Substances inside the plasma membrane are intracellular, and outside are
extracellular sometimes called intercellular

5.

Encloses and supports the cell contents

6.

32

2. Plasma membrane

6.

Attaches cells to the extracellular environment or other cells

7.

To able the cell to recognize and to communicate with each other

8.

..

33

2. Plasma membrane

8.
9.

Determines what move into and out of cells different the extra & intracellular environment
Regulates the movement of ions as a result of the existence of membrane
potential (outside is positively and inside is negatively charged)

34

Composition of the plasma membrane

Membrane lipids
1.

Predominantly phospholipids and cholesterol

2.

Phospholipids readily assemble to form a lipid bilayer that have a polar

(charged) head and a nonpolar (uncharged) head. The polar is hydrophilic
which exposed to water inside and outside the cell. The nonpolar is
hydrophobic tails which face one another in the interior of the plasma
membrane

35

Composition of the plasma membrane

Membrane lipids
4.

Cholesterol accounts for about one third of the total lipids which is
interspersed among the phospholipids

5.

The amount of cholesterol determines the fluid nature of the membrane.

36

37

The proteins
1.

Determine the function of the plasma membrane

2.

Give structure of fluid mosaic model

3.

38

The proteins
3

The position are integral (intrinsic) that penetrate deeply into the lipid bilayer
and extend from one surface to the other, consist of hydrophilic and
hydrophobic R groups; and peripheral (extrinsic) that are attached either the
inner or outer surface and usually bound to integral protein

39

The proteins
4.

Function as markers, attachment sites, channels, receptors, enzymes, or

carriers.

5.

The functions depend on their three dimensional shapes and their chemical
characteristics.

40

Membrane Protein

Cell surface marker

Glycoproteins on the surface allow cells to
identify one another

Globular proteins in the

plasma membrane

Membrane protein ..

41

Membrane Protein

Attachment site
Proteins (integrins) in the plasma membrane attach to extracellular molecules
Membrane protein ..

Receptor protein

42

Membrane protein ..

43

THE CHANNEL PROTEINS

1. Some region of the protein are helical. Each
helical region can be depicted as cylinder

44

2. In some membrane proteins, the helical region

form circle with a channel in the center

45

3. The ring of cylinders can be depicted as a 3-D

globular structure with a channel in the center.
This is called a channel protein

46

4. The channel protein can be depicted cut in half

to show the channel

47

5. The cut channel protein is depicted within the

plasma membrane

Membrane proteins ..

48

Receptors linked to channel proteins

Some protein are ligand gated ion channel. When ligands bind to the receptor
sites, this combination alters the the three-dimensional structure causing the
channels either to open or to close change the permeability of the plasma
membrane.

The bounded ligand open the channel

Membrane proteins ..

Receptors linked to G proteins

Some membrane-bound molecules

function by altering the activity of a G
protein complex that consisted of three
proteins called alpha, beta, and gamma,
located on the inner surface of the
plasma membrane. When a ligand
attaches the receptor the G-protein is
activated and stimulate a cell response.

Membrane proteins ..

Enzyme in the plasma

membrane

Some membrane proteins

function as enzyme

This enzyme in the plasma membrane breaks the peptide bound of dipeptide
to produce two amino acids.
Membrane proteins ..

Carrier proteins

Carrier proteins are integral

proteins that move ions or
molecules from one side of the
plasma membrane to the other. The
carrier proteins have specific
binding sites to which ions or
molecules attach on one side of the
plasma membrane. The carrier
protein change its conformation to
move the ions or molecules to the
other side of the plasma membrane.

53

Assignment:
1.

What are the major function of the cell?

2.

What are the difference between light and electron microscope?

3.

Define glycolipid and glycoprotein. Describe the difference between

integral and peripheral proteins in the plasma membrane

4.

List two functions of marker molecules

5.

Describe and give the function of integrins

6.

Define nongated ion channel, ligand-gated ion channel, and voltage-gated

ion channel. What determines the function of a channel protein?

7.

To what part of a receptor molecule does a ligand attach? Give two

examples of how a ligand can bind to a receptor in the plasma membrane
and cause a response in the cell

8.

Give an example of the action of an enzyme in the plasma membrane

3. Movement through the selectively permeable

plasma membrane
Objectives:
a.

Describe the four ways by which substances can move through the plasma
membrane

b.

Describe the factors that affect the rate and the direction of diffusion of the
solute in a solvent

c.

Describe diffusion and osmosis

d.

Describe the processes of facilitated diffusion, active transport, and

secondary active transport

Movement Through the Plasma Membrane

1.

Lipid-soluble molecules pass through the plasma membrane readily by

dissolving in the lipid bilayer

2.

Small molecules pass through membrane channel. Most channel are

positively charged, allowing negatively charged ions and neutral
molecules to pass through more readily than positive charged ions

3.

Large polar substances (e.g., glucose and amino acids) are transported
through the membrane by carrier molecules

4.

Larger pieces of materials enter cells in vesicles

Diffusion
1.

Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of higher

concentration to one lower concentration [with a concentration gradient]

2.

The concentration gradient is the difference in solute concentration

between two points divided by the distance separating the points

3.

The rate of diffusion increases with an increase in concentration gradient,

an increase in temperature, a decrease in molecular size, and decrease in
viscosity

4.

The end result of diffusion is a uniform distribution of molecules

5.

Diffusion requires no expenditure of energy

Diffusion

Ligand

This small, lipid-soluble

ligand diffuses through
the plasma membrane
and combine with the
receptor site of an
intracellular receptor

Ligand
Receptor site

Intracellular
receptor

DIFFUSI

Substansi atau molekul akan berpindah dari larutan yang konsentrasi

Gradien tinggi ke konsentrasi gradien rendah
Melalui selaput semipermiabel

Osmosis
1.

Osmosis is the diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively permeable

membrane

2.

Osmotic pressure is the force required to prevent the movement of water

across a selectively permeable membrane

3.

Isosmotic solutions have the same concentration of the solute particles,

hyperosmotic solutions have a greater concentration, and hyposmotic
solutions have a lower concentration of solute particles than a reference
solution

4.

Cells placed in an isotonic solution neither swell nor shrink. In a

hypertonic solution they shrink (crenate), and in a hypotonic solution they
swell and may be burst (lyse)

Filtration
1.

Filtration is the movement of a liquid through a partition with holes that

allow the liquid, but not everything in the liquid, to pass through them

2.

Liquid movement results from a pressure difference across the partition

Mediated Transport Mechanism

1.

Mediated transport is the movement of a substance across a membrane by

means of a carrier molecule. The substances transported tend to be large,
water soluble molecules

The carrier molecules have binding sites that bind with either a single
transport molecule or a group of similar transport molecules. This
selectiveness is called specificity

Similar molecule can compete for carrier molecules, with each

reducing the rate of transport of the other

Once all the carrier molecules are in use, the rate of transport cannot
increase further (saturation)

Mediated Transport mechanism ..

2.

Three kinds of mediated transport can be identified.

Facilitated diffusion moves substances with the concentration

gradient and does nor require energy expenditure (ATP)

Active transport can move substances against their concentration

gradient and requires ATP. An exchange pump is an active transport
mechanism that simultaneously moves two substances in opposite
direction across the plasma membrane

In secondary active transport. An ion is moved across the plasma

membrane by active transport, and the energy produced by the ion
diffusing back down its concentration gradient can transport another
molecule, such as glucose, against its concentration gradient.

FACILITATED DIFUSION

Dengan adanya carier protein, molekul atau substansi yang dibutuhkan

Dapat masuk ke dalam sel.

Mediated transport

1.

The carrier protein binds with a

molecular on one side of the plasma
membrane

2.

The carrier protein changes shape

and release the molecule on the
other side of the plasma membrane

Primary Active Transport

Secondary Active Transport

1.

Na+ concentration is maintained higher out side than inside the cell by
sodium-potassium exchange pump. This concentration gradient provides
energy for secondary active transport

2.

Na+ move back into the cell with glucose as secondary active transport.

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

1.

Endocytosis is the bulk movement of materials into cells

Phagocytosis is the bulk movement of solid material into cells by

formation of a vesicle

Pinocytosis is similar to phagocytosis, except that the ingested

material is much smaller or in solution

2.

Exocytosis is the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation

3.

Endocytosis and exocytosis use vesicles, can be specific (receptormediated endocytosis) for substance transported, and require energy

Endocytosis
Or
Internalization

A particle enters the vesicle (membrane-bounded sac) the plasma

membrane wraps around the particle and fuses so that the particle is
surrounded by a membrane. That portion of the membrane then pinches off
so the surrounded particle is with the cytoplasm, and the plasma membrane is
left intact

Phagositosis
Molekul asing akan
Diselubungi oleh
Membran plasma yang
Membentuk vesikel
phagositik
Phinositosis
Molekul yang lebih
Kecil akan
Diselubungi vesikel
Sinaptik dan
Ditranport ke dlm
sel
Endositosis
Transport substansi/
Molekul masuk ke
Dalam sel
Berlawanan dengan
eksositosis

Exocytosis

Particle contained vesicle migrate forward the membrane, fuses with the
membrane. The vesicle burst and release it contain out of the cell

Pinocytosis

Pinocytosis is much like phagocytosis, except the cell processes and therefore the
vesicle formed are much smaller and the material inside the vesicle is liquid rather
than particulate. Pinocytotic vesicle form on the internal side of a capillary, are
transported across the cell, and open by exocytosis outside the capillary

Overview of Cell Metabolism

1. Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and produces carbon

dioxide, water, and up to 38 ATP molecules from a molecule
of glucose
2. Anaerobic respiration does nor require oxygen and produces
lactic acid and two ATP molecules from a molecule of
glucose

Overview of Cell
Metabolism

Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and produces more ATP per glucose molecule
than does anaerobic metabolism

Cellular Aspect of Aging

1.

Cellular clock. A cell line may die out after a certain time or a certain
number of cell divisions

2.

Death genes. There may be death genes, with turn on late in life,
causing cells to die

3.

DNA damage. Telomeres normally protect DNA from damage during

replication, and telomerase protects these telomeres. Aging cells lack
telomerase and telomeres, and other DNA, become open to damage

4.

Free radicals. Free radicals may also damage DNA

5.

Mitochndrial damage. Mitochondrial DNA may be the most sensitive to

free-radicals damage

Assignments:
1.

List four ways that substances move across the plasma membrane

2.

Define solute, solvent, and concentration gradient. Do solutes diffuse

with or against their concentration gradient?

3.

How is the rate of diffusion affected by an incr4eased concentration

gradient? By an increased of a solution? By increased viscosity of the
solvent?

4.

Define osmosis and osmotic pressure. As the concentration of a solution

increases, what happens to its osmotic pressure and the tendency for water
to move into it?

5.

Compare isosmotic, hyperosmotic, and hyposmotic solution to isotonic,

hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions what type of solution causes
crenation of a cell? What type of solution causes lysis of a cell?

6.

Define filtration and give an examples of where it occurs in the body

7.

What is mediated transport? What types of molecules are moved through

the plasma membrane by mediated transport?

8.

Describe specificity, competition, and saturation as characteristics of

mediated transport mechanisms

9.

Contrast facilitated diffusion and active transport in relation to energy

expenditure and movement of substances with or against their
concentration gradients

10. What are secondary active transport, cotransport, and countertransport?

11. Define endocytosis and vesicle. How do phagocytosis and pinocytosis
differ from each other?
12. What is receptor mediated endocytosis?
13. Describe and give examples of exocytosis