CHAPTER 2:

LOCOMOTION AND
SUPPORT
2.1 : Understanding
support and locomotion in
humans and animals

2.1 Support and locomotion in

humans and animals

Importance of support and locomotion in

humans and animals
Provides shape and support
Enables to move
Protects internal organs
Produce blood cells
Store certain materials such as calcium and
phosphate

2.1 Support and locomotion in

humans and animals

Locomotion:
The ability of a whole organisms to move from
one place to another

Movement:
To a change in the position of any part of body
but it does not necessarily involve locomotion

2.1 Support and locomotion in

humans and animals

Support is provided by a frame work called a

skeleton.
3 different types of skeletons:
1) Exoskeleton
2) Endoskeleton
3) Hydrostatic skeleton

The Human Skeleton

Consists of 2 main part:

Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton

Human skeleton

Parts

Axial skeleton

1) Skull
2) Vertebral column
3) Ribs and sternum

Appendicular skeleton

1)
2)
3)
4)

Pectoral girdle
Upper limbs
Pelvic girdle
Lower limbs

Axial skeleton

Skull:
Contain 22 bones
Made up of flat bones joined together by sutures
Consists of:

a) cranial bones protect the brain

b) Facial bones provide the basic shape of the face and
support for the teeth

The lower jaw is movable

Skull

Axial skeleton

Ribs and the sternum:

12 pairs of ribs articulate with the sternum and the
thoracic vertebrae
The ribs are flattened and curved bones
The sternum is flattened and narrow bone
Form a cage to protect the heart and lungs

Ribs and Sternum

Ribs and Sternum

Sternum
True Ribs (7)
False Ribs (3)
Floating Ribs

Axial skeleton

Vertebral column

Consists of 33 vertebrae attached together

Intervertebral discs (cartilage) absorb shock and allows limited
movement
Function:
1) Protects the spinal cord
2) Support the head
5 types of vertebrae:
Cervical vertebrae (7)
Thoracic vertebrae (12)
Lumbar vertebrae (5)
Sacrum vertebrae (5)
Coccyx (4)

The Vertebral
Column
Cervical Vertebrae
(7)
Thoracic Vertebrae
(12)
Lumbar Vertberae (5)
Sacrum (5)

Vertebral Column
Type of
vertebrae

Number
of
vertebrae

Cervical
vertebrae

Thoracic
vertebrae

12

Main characteristics

large neural canal

Has a pair vertebrarterial canals for the vertebral
artery to pass through to the brain
long spinous process pointing downwards
Thick and big centrum
Short tranverse processes
The first ten vertebrae articulate with the ribs

Lumbar
vertebrae

Thick and big centrum

Long tranverse processes for muscle attachment
Strongest and largest vertebrae

Sacrum

Vertebrae fused to each other

Has 4 pairs of openings
Triangular shape

Coccyx

Bones fused to each other forming a triangular which

tapers at one end

Vertebral Column

Structure of a Typical Vertebrae

Consists of:

Centrum
Vertebral arch
Neural canal
Transverse processes

The function of each structure of a vertebra

Structure

Spinous process

Function

Tranverse process

Provides surface for attachment of ligaments and

muscles

Vertebral arch

Protects the spinal cord

Centrum

Provides support and absorb shocks

Neural canal

Provides the passage of nerves from the spinal cord

Articulating surface

Provides surface which articulates with the next

vertebra

Structure of a Typical Vertebrae

Neural canal

Sacrum & Coccyx

The Appendicular skeleton

Pectoral Girdle
rod-shaped bone
Links scapula to the sternum

flat, triangular bone

The socket
articulates with the
head of the humerus

The Appendicular skeleton

Upper Limb
Humerus

Ulna
Radius
8 Carpals
5 Metacarpals
14 Phalanges

Longest bone of the upper limb

The Appendicular skeleton

Pelvic Girdle
Consists of 2 hip bones
Support the body weight and vertebral column
Protects the urinary bladder and reproductive organs

The Appendicular skeleton

Pelvic Girdle

The Appendicular skeleton

The Lower Limb
(Legs)
Femur
@ knee cap
Protects the knee joint

Patell
a
Tibia
Fibula

7 Tarsals
5 Metatarsals
14

Foot
phalanges
metatarsals
tarsals
tarsals
metatarsals
phalanges

The structure of a joint

A joint- place where 2 or

more bones meet.
Bones are held together by
ligaments.

tough sheets of elastic fibres

connects bone to bone
allows the movements and
prevent the dislocation

Synovial joint joints that

contains a cavity filled with
fluid.
End of bones are covered
with cartilage.

The structure of a joint

Types of joint:

a) Hinge joints
movement
of bones in one plane
Example: in the elbows,
phalanges of the fingers and
toes.

b) Ball-and-socket joints
movement of bones in all
direction.
Example: shoulder joint between
humerus and pectoral girdle.

Tendons

Tough, strong and inelastic of dense connective

tissues.
Function:

Join skeletal muscles to the bones.

Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscles responsible for the

voluntary movements of the body.
Muscles must work in pair.
Antagonistic muscle a pair of muscles which
work together to allow coordinated movements
of the skeletal joints.
When one muscle contracts, the other muscle relaxes.

Example of an antagonistic pair of muscles:

Biceps and triceps

Bending the forearm

When the biceps (flexor)
contracts, the tendon transmit
the pulling force to the forearm

The elbow joint bends, and the

forearm moves upwards
The triceps relaxes

Straightening the
forearm

The forearm is straightened.

When the triceps (extensor)

contracts

The adaptation to reduce birds weight

Hollow bones
Small brain
Absence of teeth
Small head

The structure of a muscle

Skeletal muscle consists of bundles of muscle fibres and

a large supply of nerves and blood vessels.
A muscle fibre is a long cylindrical cell contain
numerous nuclei.
A muscle fibre is made up of bundles of smaller units
myofibrils.
Each myofibril is made up of 2 types of protein filaments
Actin
Myosin

The interaction of both these proteins causes muscle

contractions.

A muscle

The mechanism of
locomotion in
animals

Hydrostatic skeleton: Earthworm

Grasshopper
Fish
Amphibian : Frog
Bird

Earthworm

Earthworm

Has a hydrostatic skeleton

Caelom fluid-filled cavity

Caelom surrounded by 2 antagonistic layers of

muscles
The circular muscle
The longitudinal muscle

Has bristle called chaetae anchor parts of the

body to the ground so that other parts can be
pulled towards the static parts.

Earthworm

When the circular muscles contract, the

longitudinal muscles relax
The earthworm becomes thinner and longer

When the longitudinal muscles contract, the

circular relax
The earthworm becomes shorter and thicker

During locomotion, the circular and longitudinal

muscles contract and relax rhythmically produce
peristaltic waves.
peristaltic waves begin at the front and move
towards at the end of the body.

Mechanism of locomotion in an
earthworm
The LM in the posterior contract and become shortened. The CM relax.

The chaetae anchor the shortened segments in posterior to the ground.

The CM contract, the Lm relax. The anterior extend forward.

The chaetae in the anterior segments anchor to the ground.

The shortened segment in the posterior is pulled forward.

The CM contract,
the Lm relax. The
anterior extend
forward.
The chaetae in the
posterior segments
anchor to the
ground.

grasshopper

Grasshopper

Hind leg are adapted for hopping.

The legs are long and muscular.

Also has antagonistic muscles.

Flexors muscles that bend a joint
Extensors muscles that straighten a joint
MECHANISM OF LOCOMOTION IN A
GRASSHOPPER

To walk, a grasshopper uses 3 legs to support its

body off the ground, while the other 3 legs move
together to make successive steps.

Grasshopper
Extensor

Flexor

Grasshopper
In the position at rest (flexor muscle contract), the
hind leg is folded in the shape of a Z and the
grasshopper is ready for a jump.

When the extensor muscle contracts (the flexor

muscle relaxes), the hind leg extends backwards,
propelling the grasshopper forward and upwards into
the air.

Grasshopper

Flexor muscle relaxed.

Energy stored in
tendon and extensor
muscle is extended to
propel the insect into
the air

Fish

Fish

Problem : overcoming gravity because most its

body is supported by water but it faces the
problem of water resistance.
To reduce water resistance while swimming, fish
have
Streamlined body shapes
Overlapping scales on their bodies
Slimy coating on their bodies to minimise frictional drag

Myotome muscles are W-shaped muscle segments.

Myotome muscles

Mechanism of locomotion in a fish

Myotome muscles carry out opposite actions in fish.

When the muscles on one side contract, those on the other
side relax.
The body bends towards the side of the myotome
muscles that contract.
Alternating waves of contraction and relaxation pass down
the myotomes on either side of the body from the head to
the tail.
These cause the different parts of the body to bend from
side to side, pushing the water backwards and sideways.

Mechanism of locomotion in a fish

Mechanism of locomotion in a fish

There is tendency for fish to become unstable in

water when they are swimming, leading to:
Yawing (sideway movement - pesongan)
Pitching (vertical plane movement - junaman)
Rolling (transverse movement - golekan)

Mechanism of locomotion in a fish

Dorsal fin

control rolling and

yawing of fish

Pectoral fin

control pitching of the

Ventral fin
control rolling and
yawing of fish

Pelvic fin

control pitching
of the fish

fish.
Helps in slowing down
or stopping

bird

Have aerofoil wings which generate lift for flying through air.

A pair of antagonistic muscles:

Pectoralis major
Pectoralis minor

When the pectoralis minor muscles contract and the

pectoralis major muscles relax, the wings are pulled up.
(upstroke)
When the pectoralis major muscles contract and the
pectoralis minor muscles relax, the wings are pulled down.
(downstroke)
The wings which move up and down rhythmically generate the
forward thrust provide the lift

bird
Pectoralis minor muscles
contract - wings are pulled
up (upstroke)

Pectoralis major contract and

pectoralis minor relaxes downstroke

Amphibian
Extensor muscles contract while flexor muscle relax.
The rapid contraction of the extensor muscles
straighten the hind legs suddenly.
The force produced is exerted to push the frog upwards
and forwards

Hind legs folded into a

Z shape

The frog lands on its front

limbs which are short to
absorb the shock upon
landing

amphibian

The hind legs are long and folded into a 'Z' shape when
the frogs are at rest.
Extensor muscle contract causing the hind legs
straighten suddenly.
The force produced is used to push the animal upwards
and forwards.
The frogs lands on its short forelimbs, which function
to absorb shock of impact.

Impaired musculoskeletal
system
Muscle cramp
Muscular distrophy
Osteoporosis
Arthritis