Radar Basics

How does radar work?

What are the characteristics of all radar systems?
What are the characteristics of Canadian radars?
Introduction to the basic radar systems.
Conventional
Doppler
Dual Polarized

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

1

RADAR
RADAR BEAM
BEAM

The
beam
of energy
spreads out
with distance,
taking a shape
resembling a cone
just like the light beam
from a coastal lighthouse.
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Radar Basics

First pulse
Second pulse

beam width

beam
axis
h (pulse
length
in
space)
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(pulse

length
in
time)

Radar Basics

Widening
Widening Beam
Beam
Beamwidth
(Wb)
at a range (r)
is given by:

200

150

Wb = r sin
For small angles
it can be
approximated as
Wb r
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100

50
r
Radar Basics

EM
EM Wave
Wave Propagation
Propagation
Vacuum :
approximately 3 * 108 m/s
in a homogeneous medium
- straight line
- constant speed
atmosphere not being homogeneous...
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Atmospheric
Atmospheric Interactions
Interactions
Refraction beam bending
Absorption energy absorption
Scattering beam scattering
Reflection beam reflection

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Refraction
Refraction
refractive index
n=c/u
n: refractive index
c: lightspeed (in vacuum)
u: lightspeed in medium
Refractivity (N)
N = (n-1) 106
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Radar Basics

Radar
Radar Propagation
Propagation
depends mainly on vertical refractivity gradient
assumed straight line propagation
under normal conditions:
- constant standard refractive index gradient
- constant radius of the earth
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Radar Basics

Radar
Radar Equation
Equation
2

h
K

10

P
G

P 1024 ln 2

r
2

18

Pr : average received power (W)

Pt : peak transmitted power (W)

ke:

G:

pulse length in space (m)

antenna gain

b : horizontal beam width

b : vertical beam width

: transmitted wavelength (m)

|K|2: targets refractive index

r : targets slant range (m)

Z : target reflectivity factor

Radar Basics 6 -3
or Ze (mm m )

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Assumptions
Assumptions

Radar range Equation

non uniform vertical distribution
Z-R variations
beam filling

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Radar Basics

Simpler
Simpler Radar
Radar Equation
Equation
Pr average received power

K
r

where C is the Radar Constant

K targets refractive index
Z target reflectivity factor
r targets slant range
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Radar Basics

Sampling
SamplingReflectivity
Reflectivity

Dimensions of volume elements being scanned

are determined by the beam widths and pulse length.
Beam width is associated with the equipment:

70

antenna

Pulse length affects the size of

conical section being sensed.
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Radar Basics

ATMOSPHERIC
ATMOSPHERIC
ATTENUATION
ATTENUATION
As radiation interacts
with encountered particles
within a swept portion
of the atmosphere,
the associated energy
undergoes several changes
which tends to further reduce
its flux along the pulsating beams.

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This is mainly due to:

absorption
scattering

Radar Basics

ATMOSPHERIC
ATMOSPHERIC
ABSORPTION
ABSORPTION
For microwaves, main absorbing gases are:
Water vapor :

Oxygen :

pressure
temperature (inverse)
absolute humidity

pressure (squared)
temperature

weaker variables:
- climate
- season
Corrections to the order of 3 to 4 dB (within 200 km)
can be applied to precipitation measurements.

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Radar Basics

Attenuation
Attenuation
PRF can theoretically determine
a maximum unambiguous range.
In practice, within a network,
the useful range of weather radars
would be less than 200 km.
Quantitative precipitation measurements
near the surface can extend to a distance of 130 km.
Doppler may expand intrinsic limitations
with new developments.
Special requirements for long range detection
of thunderstorm can also be serviced.

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Radar Basics

Hydrometeors
Hydrometeors
attenuation relates to:
- shape
- size
- composition
- wavelength:
@ 10 cm: rather weak
@ 5 cm: acceptable (higher latitude)
@ 3 cm: significant
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Radar Basics

Water
Water mass
mass
larger water mass
causes more attenuation:
ice has less effect than liquid.
Attenuation increases in:
- more dense precipitation areas
- heavier precipitation

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Size
Size
Melting precipitation and
larger particles such as
- wet snow
- hail
can distort precipitation estimates.
Cloud particles have little effect;
it can be ignored
(unless more precision required)
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normal atmospheric conditions

Normal propagation
4/3 OF EARTHS
RADIUS

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Radar Basics

abnormal atmospheric conditions

subrefraction

superrefraction

cool, moist air aloft

warm, dry air below
warm dry air aloft
cool, moist air below

ducting

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Radar Basics

RADAR
RADAR BEAM
BEAM

The
beam
of energy
spreads out
with distance,
taking a shape
resembling a cone
just like the light beam
from a coastal lighthouse.
Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

First pulse
Second pulse

beam width

beam
axis
h (pulse
length
in
space)
Radar Palette Home

(pulse

length
in
time)

Radar Basics

Widening
Widening Beam
Beam
Beamwidth
(Wb)
at a range (r)
is given by:
Wb = r sin
For small angles
it can be
approximated as
Wb r
Radar Palette Home

200

150

100

50
r
Radar Basics

EM
EM Wave
Wave Propagation
Propagation
Vacuum :
approximately 3 * 108 m/s
in a homogeneous medium
- straight line
- constant speed
atmosphere not being homogeneous...
Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

Atmospheric
Atmospheric Interactions
Interactions
Refraction beam bending
Absorption energy absorption
Scattering beam scattering
Reflection beam reflection

Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

Refraction
Refraction
refractive index
n=c/u
n: refractive index
c: lightspeed (in vacuum)
u: lightspeed in medium
Refractivity (N)
N = (n-1) 106
Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

Radar
Radar Propagation
Propagation
depends mainly on vertical refractivity gradient
assumed straight line propagation
under normal conditions:
- constant standard refractive index gradient
- constant radius of the earth
Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

Radar
Radar Equation
Equation
2

h
K

10

P
G

P 1024 ln 2

r
2

18

Pr : average received power (W)

Pt : peak transmitted power (W)

ke:

G:

pulse length in space (m)

antenna gain

b : horizontal beam width

b : vertical beam width

: transmitted wavelength (m)

|K|2: targets refractive index

r : targets slant range (m)

Z : target reflectivity factor

Radar Basics 6 -3
or Ze (mm m )

Radar Palette Home

Assumptions
Assumptions

Radar range Equation

non uniform vertical distribution
Z-R variations
beam filling

Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

Simpler
Simpler Radar
Radar Equation
Equation
Pr average received power

K
r

where C is the Radar Constant

K targets refractive index
Z target reflectivity factor
r targets slant range
Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

Sampling
SamplingReflectivity
Reflectivity

Dimensions of volume elements being scanned

are determined by the beam widths and pulse length.
Beam width is associated with the equipment:

70

antenna

Pulse length affects the size of

conical section being sensed.
Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

ATMOSPHERIC
ATMOSPHERIC
ATTENUATION
ATTENUATION
As radiation interacts
with encountered particles
within a swept portion
of the atmosphere,
the associated energy
undergoes several changes
which tends to further reduce
its flux along the pulsating beams.

Radar Palette Home

This is mainly due to:

absorption
scattering

Radar Basics

ATMOSPHERIC
ATMOSPHERIC
ABSORPTION
ABSORPTION
For microwaves, main absorbing gases are:
Water vapor :

Oxygen :

pressure
temperature (inverse)
absolute humidity

pressure (squared)
temperature

weaker variables:
- climate
- season
Corrections to the order of 3 to 4 dB (within 200 km)
can be applied to precipitation measurements.

Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

Attenuation
Attenuation
PRF can theoretically determine
a maximum unambiguous range.
In practice, within a network,
the useful range of weather radars
would be less than 200 km.
Quantitative precipitation measurements
near the surface can extend to a distance of 130 km.
Doppler may expand intrinsic limitations
with new developments.
Special requirements for long range detection
of thunderstorm can also be serviced.

Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

Hydrometeors
Hydrometeors
attenuation relates to:
- shape
- size
- composition
- wavelength:
@ 10 cm: rather weak
@ 5 cm: acceptable (higher latitude)
@ 3 cm: significant
Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

Water
Water mass
mass
larger water mass
causes more attenuation:
ice has less effect than liquid.
Attenuation increases in:
- more dense precipitation areas
- heavier precipitation

Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

Size
Size
Melting precipitation and
larger particles such as
- wet snow
- hail
can distort precipitation estimates.
Cloud particles have little effect;
it can be ignored
(unless more precision required)
Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

normal atmospheric conditions

Normal propagation
4/3 OF EARTHS
RADIUS

Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

abnormal atmospheric conditions

subrefraction

superrefraction

cool, moist air aloft

warm, dry air below
warm dry air aloft
cool, moist air below

ducting

Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics

Warm Frontal Cross-section along

Leading Branch of the Warm Conveyor
Belt (WCB)
Common location for virga

WCB

Surface
Warm Front

or
df
e
t
ift
en
ori ntal l
B
o
W C ss fr
le
one
Z
i ng
Mix

A
r
ed fo
t
n
ie
r
o
if t
W CB m frontal l
u
maxim
n
itatio
p
i
c
e
a Pr
Virg
Increasing CCB
r
Lowe or Moistening
me te
Hydro sity
Den

CCB

A
Cold air in Cold Conveyor Belt (CCB) deep and dry

Link to Classic
Example

Moist portion of Warm Conveyor Belt (WCB) is high and veered from frontal perpendicular katabatic tendency
Dry lower levels of WCB originate from ahead of the system and backed from frontal perpendicular
WCB typically veers with height (it is after all, a warm front)
Frontal slope is more shallow than the typical 1:200
Precipitation extends equidistant into the unmodified CCB
Precipitation extends further into the moistened, modified CCB

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

40

Vertical Deformation Zone Distribution and the CBM

Simplified Summary

C
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WCB

DC
B

Looking along the flow:

In WCB to the right of the Col
expect veering winds with height
Katabatic warm front
In WCB approach to the right of
the Col expect maximum
divergence the eagle pattern
with ascent and increasing pcpn
In WCB to the left of the Col
expect backing winds with height
Anabatic warm front

DC
B

B
CC

The WCB overrides the warm front

The CCB undercuts the warm front
The frontal surface overlies the
mixing layer
Wind shear in the CCB is variable

Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

41

Range Ring versus Radial Zero Velocity Doppler Lines

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

42

A
C

G
E

Need to
emphasize
The PPI
nature of the
Doppler
scan
- The cone

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

43

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

44

A
C

G
E

F
H

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

45

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

46

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

47

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

48

Under WCB
Virga only likely on the leading edge of the WCB
The CCB is becoming increasingly moist
Frontal overrunning and isentropic lift is
increasing thus increasing the intensity of the
precipitation process.
Warm front becoming more likely Anabatic

Click for the Conceptual Model and Explanation

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

49

Warm Frontal Cross-section along

Central Branch of the Warm Conveyor
Belt (WCB)

Common location for virga

WCB

Surface
Warm Front

Precipitation
At Surface

f or
d
e
t
n
ift
orie rontal l
B
ation
W C um f
t
i
p
i
c
im
e
a Pr
ma x
Virg
Increasing CCB
e
wer
n
o
L
o
Moistening
gZ
e t eor
n
m
i
o
r
x
Hyd
Mi
ity
Dens

CCB

Cold air in Cold Conveyor Belt (CCB) more shallow and moist
Moist portion of Warm Conveyor Belt (WCB) is thicker, higher and perpendicular to front
Lower levels of WCB have the same origin as the upper level of the WCB - frontal perpendicular
WCB shows little directional shift with height. A greater WCB depth is frontal perpendicular
Frontal slope is near the typical 1:200
Precipitation extends further into the moistened, modified CCB.
Horizontal rain area begins to expand as CCB moistens.

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

50

Vertical Deformation Zone Distribution and the CBM

Simplified Summary

C
Radar Palette Home

WCB

DC
B

Looking along the flow:

In WCB to the right of the Col
expect veering winds with height
Katabatic warm front
In WCB approach to the right of
the Col expect maximum
divergence the eagle pattern
with ascent and increasing pcpn
In WCB to the left of the Col
expect backing winds with height
Anabatic warm front

DC
B

B
CC

The WCB overrides the warm front

The CCB undercuts the warm front
The frontal surface overlies the
mixing layer
Wind shear in the CCB is variable

Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

51

Diagnosis of the Conveyor Belts

Wind direction and speed diagnosis should be
completed independently in each conveyor belt
Given the nature of isentropic flow, this is a
prudent mode of diagnosis. Isentropic flows stay
relatively separate and maintain their distinctive
properties.
The Doppler characteristics depicted in the CCB
are separate from those in the WCB. When
added, instructive patterns are revealed.

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

52

Range Ring versus Radial Zero Velocity Doppler Lines

B
A B

A
C

Radial Zero Lines

A is the radar site
A zero Doppler Velocity line that
follows a radial from the radar like BC
depicts velocity vectors that are
At every increasing heights
Depictions of vertical wind
differences
Radial Zero Lines thus depict vertical
wind difference

Range Ring Zero Lines

A is the radar site
A zero Doppler Velocity line that
follows a range ring like BC depicts
velocity vectors that are
All at the same elevation
Depictions of horizontal wind
differences
Range Ring Zero Lines thus depict
spatial wind difference

The real Doppler data is a combination of these two patterns

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

53

A
C

G
E

Need to
emphasize
The PPI
nature of the
Doppler
scan
- The cone

Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

54

Active or Anabatic Warm Front

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

55

CCB Doppler Diagnosis

B
B

The Beaked Eagle

A is the radar site
AB is backing with height indicative
of cold advection where really there
should be veering with the Ekman
Spiral
BC is veering with height indicative of
warm advection
B is the front with the mixing layer
hidden in the cold advection
This is a strong cold advection
The warm front will be slow moving
or stationary
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The Headless Eagle

A is the radar site
ABC is all veering with height
indicative of warm advection. Layer
AB is apt to be partially the result of
the Ekman Spiral
BC is veering with height indicative of
warm advection
Where is the front and the mixing
layer?
The cold advection is not apparent
and the warm front will advance
Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis
56

WCB Doppler Diagnosis

A
C

G
E

F
H

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

57

WCB Doppler Diagnosis Diagnosis on the Eagle Wing

C

The Left Eagle Wing

A is the radar site
BC is veering with height indicative of
warm advection.
CD is backing with height indicative
of cold advection
Larger angles subtended by the arcs
BC and CD by the radar site A, are
associated with strong thermal
advections
A broad wind in the eagle is
associated with strong advections
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A
B

The Right Eagle Wing

A is the radar site
BC is backing with height indicative
of cold advection.
CD is veering with height indicative of
warm advection
Larger angles subtended by the arcs
BC and CD by the radar site A, are
associated with strong thermal
advections
A broad wind in the eagle is
associated with strong advections
Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis
58

WCB Doppler Diagnosis Diagnosis on the Gull Wing

C
D

The Left Eagle Wing

A is the radar site
BC is veering with height indicative of
warm advection.
CD is backing with height indicative
of cold advection
Larger angles subtended by the arcs
BC and CD by the radar site A, are
associated with strong thermal
advections
A broad wind in the eagle is
associated with strong advections
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A
B

The Right Eagle Wing

A is the radar site
BC is backing with height indicative
of cold advection.
CD is veering with height indicative of
warm advection
Larger angles subtended by the arcs
BC and CD by the radar site A, are
associated with strong thermal
advections
A broad wind in the eagle is
associated with strong advections
Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis
59

Behind WCB
Virga much less likely
The CCB has become moist
Frontal overrunning and isentropic lift is
maximized thus maximizing the intensity of the
precipitation process.
Warm front is likely Anabatic

Click for the Conceptual Model and Explanation

Radar Palette Home

Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

60

Warm Frontal Cross-section along

Trailing Branch of the Warm Conveyor
Belt (WCB)

Common location for virga

WCB

Surface
Warm Front

Precipitation
At Surface

f or
d
e
t
n
ift
orie rontal l
B
ation
W C um f
t
i
p
i
c
im
e
a Pr
ma x
Virg
Increasing CCB
e
wer
n
o
L
o
Moistening
gZ
e t eor
n
m
i
o
r
x
Hyd
Mi
ity
Dens

CCB

Cold air in Cold Conveyor Belt (CCB) even more shallow and more moist
Moist portion of Warm Conveyor Belt (WCB) is thicker, higher and backed from frontal perpendicular anabatic tendency
Lower levels of WCB have the same origin as the upper level of the WCB
WCB probably backs slightly with height in spite of the warm air advection. A greater WCB depth is frontal perpendicular
Frontal slope likely steeper than the typical 1:200
Precipitation extends further into the moistened, modified CCB.
Horizontal rain area expands rapidly as CCB moistened.

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

61

Vertical Deformation Zone Distribution and the CBM

Summary
C

B
CC

C
C
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DC
B

DC
B

WCB

Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

62

D
C

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

63

Behind WCB

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

64

Behind WCB

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

65

Behind WCB

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66

Behind WCB

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67

Behind WCB

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

68

This must be and remain as Slide 31.

The links to the three sections of the airflows
that comprise each of the conveyor belts are
located at Slide 1,11 and 21.
Slide 11 is always the central, col limited
circulation.
This leaves 10 PowerPoint slides for the
development of the training material which
should be more than adequate.

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Radar Basics Analysis & Diagnosis

69