Chapter 11: Metal Alloys -

Applications and Processing

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are metal alloys classified and how are they used?
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques?
• How do properties vary throughout a piece of material
that has been quenched, for example?
• How can properties be modified by post heat treatment?
 Taxonomy of Metals
Metal Alloys

Ferrous Nonferrous

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C
T(°C) microstructure:
1600 ferrite, graphite

cementite
1400 L
+L
1200  1148°C L+Fe3C
austenite Eutectic:
1000 4.30

+Fe3C
+

800 727°C Fe3C



ferrite Eutectoid: cementite

600 0.76 +Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat austenitic
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
 Steels
Nomenclature AISI & SAE
10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (10 ~ 20%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.4 - 0.90%), Mo (0.2 - 0.3%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)

where xx is wt% C x 100

example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C

Stainless Steel -- >11% Cr

 System and Composition of
Plain Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel
Low carbon
Medium, High carbon
 Plain Carbon Steel
Low carbon Medium carbon High carbon
• Good • Can be • Low toughness
formability and quenched to and formability
weldability form martensite • Good hardness
• Strengthening or bainite and wear
by coldwork • Compromising resistance
• Structure structure • Can form
usually between ductility martensite by
pearlite and and strength quenching but
ferrite risk of cracking

Compare to other engineering materials

• High strength and stiffness, reasonable toughness, easy to
recycle and low cost
• Rust easily, require surface protection
 Effect of alloy elements
• Bi, Pb - improve machinability
• B 0.001-0.003% - powerful hardenability agent
• Cr 0.5-2% - increase hardenability, 4-18% - corr. resist.
• Cu 0.1-0.4% corrosion resistance
• Mn 0.25-0.4% - combine with S to prevent brittleness
• Mo 0.2-5% - stable carbides
• Ni 2-5% - toughener, 12-20% - corrosion resistance
• Si 0.2-0.7% - strength, 2% - spring, higher% - magnetic p.
• S 0.08-0.15% - free machining
• Ti - fix C in inert particles, reduce mart. hardn. in Cr steels
• W - hardness at high temperature
• V - stable carbide, inc. str. with remain ductility, fine grain
 Alloy Steels
HSLA Dual-Phase Steel
• Large applications • Quench from temp.
• High yield (nearly twice above A1 but below A3
of plain C steel), good to form structure of
weldability and ferrite and martensite
acceptable corrosion • Strength comparable to
resistance HSLA while improve
• Limited ductility and formability with no loss
hardenability of weldability
• Resist to form • Automotive structure
martensite in weld zone and body application
 Alloy Steels
Free-machining steels Bake-Hardenable steel
• S, Pb, Bi, Se, Te or P sheet
• Making chip-breaking • Significant in automotive
discontinuity in structure steel sheet
and a build-in lubrication • Low carbon steel
• Higher cost may • Good formability and
compensated with higher increase strength after
speed and lower wear of forming with heat exposure
cutting tools in paint-baking process
• Additives may reduce • Good spot weldability,
concerned properties such crash energy, low cost
as strength, ductility easy recycle
• cold working also improve
machinability
 Alloy Steels
Maraging Steels
• Super high strength alloy
• Typical composition is
0.03% C, 8.5% Ni, 7.5% Co,
0.1% Al, 0.003% B, 0.1% Si,
4.8% Mo, 0.4%Ti, 0.01% Zr,
0.1% Mn, 0.01%S and 0.01%P
• Can be hot worked to get
soft, tough, low martensite
and easy to machine
• Can be cold worked and
aging with a yield of 1725
MPa and %EL 11%
• Weldability
Steel for HighTemp.
• Good strength, corrosion
resistance, creep
resistance
• Plain C steel – 250 C
• Conventional alloy – 350 C
• High temp. ferrous alloy
tend to has low carbon
(less than 0.1%)
• Can be used at higher than
550 C
 Bake hardenable steel

Dual Phase Steel

 Tool Steels
Water hardening (W)
Cold Work
O – Oil hardening
A – Air hardening
D – High C high Cr • High carbon,
Shock resistance (S) high strength
High speed
T – W base, M – Mo base
ferrous alloy
Hot work • Balance of
H1-H19 – Cr base toughness,
H20-H39 – W base
H40-H59 – Mo base strength and
Plastic mold (P) wear resistance
Special purpose
L – Low alloy
F – carbon-tungsten
Tool Steels
 Stainless Steels
Series Alloys Structure
200 Cr, Ni, Mn or Ni Austenitic
300 Cr and Ni Austenitic
400 Cr, (C) Ferritic or martensitic
500 Low Cr (<12%) and (C) Martensitic
• Oxide of additive elements is tough, adherent, corrosion
resistance and heals itself
Ferritic stainless steel
• Normally contain >12% Cr (Cr is ferrite stabilizer)
• Corrosion resistance
• Limited ductility or formability but weldable (no martensite
can form in weld zone)
• The cheapest stainless steel
 Stainless Steels
Martensitic Stainless Austenitic Stainless
• The lower content of Cr • Ni is austenite stabilizer
lead to more stable of • The most expensive stainless
austenite at high temp. due to Ni cost
• Slow cool may allow • Mn and N are used as
carbide of Cr (loss of stabilizer instead of Ni to
chromium oxide film) reduce cost but lower quality
• Higher cost than ferritic • Non-magnetic, highly
stainless steel due to the corrosion resistance except
heat treatment HCl and other helide acid/salt
(austenitization, quench, • Outstanding formability(FCC)
stress relief and temper
• 304 alloy (18-8) is popular
one, high response to CW
Popular stainless steels
Stainless Steel (1)
 Stainless Steel (2)

Precipitation hardenable stainless steel is the special class

• Martensitic or austenitic type, modified by addition of
alloying elements like Al to form hard intermetallic
compound during temper
 Cast Iron
• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
– more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C
• low melting (also brittle) so easiest to cast

• Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C  3 Fe () + C (graphite)

– generally a slow process

 Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram
Graphite formation T(°C)
1600
promoted by
• Si > 1 wt% 1400 L Liquid +
 +L Graphite
• slow cooling 1200  1153°C
Austenite 4.2 wt% C
1000
  + Graphite
•Gray cast iron 800
740°C
0.65
•Ductile or Nodular iron 600
 + Graphite
•White iron
400
0 1 2 3 4 90 100
•Malleable iron (Fe) Co , wt% C
•Compacted graphite iron
Production of Cast Iron
 Types of Cast Iron
Gray iron
• graphite flakes
• weak & brittle under tension
• stronger under compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant

Ductile iron
• add Mg or Ce
• graphite in nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite - better
ductility
 Types of Cast Iron
White iron
• <1wt% Si so harder but brittle
• more cementite

Malleable iron
• heat treat at 800-900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• more ductile
 Types of Cast Iron
Compacted Graphite Iron
• Mg/Ce and others are added
• Worm-like shape graphite
• Microstructure is between
gray cast iron and ductile iron
• Sharp edge of graphite
should be avoided
• High thermal conductivity
• Better resistance to thermal
shock, fracture and fatigue
• Lower oxidation at elevated
Temp.
 Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high density

2) Relatively low conductivity
3) Poor corrosion resistance

Nonferrous Alloy
 Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower : 2.7g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be: -very low : 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-lower : 4.5g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
 Non-Ferrous Alloys
• Cast Alloy – Forming or shaping by
appreciable deformation is not possible,
ordinarily by casting. So, brittle.
• Wrought Alloy – amenable to mechanical
deformation

Sometimes the heat treatability of an alloy is

frequently mentioned as “heat treatable”
Cu and its alloys
• 3 important properties are
high electrical and thermal
conductivity, useful
strength with high ductility
and corrosion resistance
• Heavily than iron
• Pure Cu – wire, cable
• Cu-Zn – brass – popular
alpha brass - ductile, form.
beta brass – Zn rich, brittle
• Cu-Ni – high thermal
conductivity, high strength
at high temperature
• Cu-Sn - bronze
Al and its alloys
• The most important of non-
ferrous metal
• Light weight, corrosion
resist., good elec./thermal
cond., workability, recycle
• Serious weakness is low
modulus of elesticity
• Pure Al – soft, ductile
• Alloy for mechanical appl.
strength as HSLA level
• Alloy for corrosion resist.
difficult to weld
• Al-Li – high strength, great
stiffness, lighter weight
Mg and its alloys
• Lightest of commerc. Metal
• Pure Mg – weak
• Alloy – poor ductility, wear,
creep and fatigue
• Modulus less than Al
• In positive side, high
strength/weight ratio, high
energy absorption, good
damping of noise/vibration
• Higher purity alloy – good
corrosion resistance
• Formability – at high temp.
• Good machinability/weldab.
• Fire hazards
Ti and its alloys
• Strong, light weight,
corrosion resistance
• Good mechanical
properties up to 535 C
• High cost, fabrication
difficulty, high energy
content and high reactivity
at elevated temperature
• Fabrication can be by
casting, forging, rolling,
extrusion or welding
Refractory metal Noble metals
• Extremely high melting T • Au, Ag, Pt, Pd, Rh, Ru, Ir
• Nb (2468 C), Mo, W (3410 and Os
C), Ta • Expensive
• Ta-Mo to improve corrosion
resistance
Miscellaneous nonferrous
Super alloys • Ni (coating)
• Use in aircraft turbine • Pb
component • Sn
• Difficult to form and • Alkaline
machine
• Special methods are used,
EDM, electrochemical,
ultrasonic m/c
 Metal Fabrication
• How do we fabricate metals?
– Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
– Molding - cast

• Forming Operations
– Rough stock formed to final shape

Hot working vs. Cold working

• T high enough for • well below Tm
recrystallization • work hardening
• Larger deformations • smaller deformations
 Metal Fabrication Methods - I

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
force
• Drawing • Extrusion
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Casting- mold is filled with metal

– metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added. Then cast in a mold
– most common, cheapest method
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials
 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
• trying to hold something that is hot
auto engine blocks)
• what will withstand >1600ºC?
Sand Sand • cheap - easy to mold => sand!!!

molten metal • pack sand around form (pattern) of

desired shape
 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
auto engine blocks) Investment Casting
• pattern is made from paraffin.
Sand Sand • mold made by encasing in
molten metal plaster of paris
• melt the wax & the hollow mold
• Investment Casting is left
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades) • pour in metal
plaster
die formed
around wax wax
prototype
 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Sand Casting • Die Casting
(large parts, e.g., (high volume, low T alloys)
auto engine blocks)

Sand Sand

molten metal
• Continuous Casting
• Investment Casting (simple slab shapes)
(low volume, complex shapes
molten
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster solidified
die formed
around wax wax
prototype
Continuous casting
 Metal Fabrication Methods - III

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding
(materials w/low ductility) (when one large part is
impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2
densify
• Heat affected zone:
point contact densification
by diffusion at
(region in which the
at low T
higher T microstructure has been
changed).
 Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, Soaking, then cool slowly.
• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):
stress caused by: Make very soft steels for
-plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
-nonuniform cooling below TE & hold for
-phase transform. 15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
good forming by heating
Annealing to get , then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effect of
• Normalize (steels):
cold working by
Deform steel with large
(recovery/
grains, then normalize
recrystallization)
to make grains small. (air cool)
Fe-Fe3C diagram
 Heat Treatments
800
Austenite (stable)

a) Annealing T(°C) TE
A
b) Quenching P
600
c) Tempered
Martensite
B
400 A
10
0%
50
0% %

0%
200 M+A
50%
M+A
90%

b) a)
10
-1
10 10
3
10
5 c)
time (s)
 Hardenability--Steels
• Ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.

flat ground
specimen
(heated to 
phase field) Rockwell C
24°C water hardness tests

• Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Distance from quenched end

 Why Hardness Changes with Position
• The cooling rate varies with position.

Hardness, HRC
60

40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(°C) 0%
600 P 100%

A
400

M(start)
200
A  M
Pe ine ens
0 M(finish) ar P ite
F
M
M ens

lite ea +
ar
ar ite
t
t

rli Pe
t e ar

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s)
lite
 Hardenability vs Alloy Composition
100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (°C/s)
• Jominy end quench
60

Hardness, HRC
results, C = 0.4 wt% 100

80 %M
C 4340
50
40 4140
8640

10
• "Alloy Steels"

40
5140
20
(4140, 4340, 5140, 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)
8640)
800
--contain Ni, Cr, Mo T(°C) TE
(0.2 to 2wt%) 600 shift from
A B
--these elements A to B due
400 to alloying
shift the "nose".
M(start)
--martensite is 200
M(90%)
easier to form.
0 -1
10 10 103 105 Time (s)
Equivalent distance and Bar diameter

(Quenched in water) (Quenched in oil)

 Radial hardness profile

(Quenched in water) (Quenched in oil)

 Quenching Medium & Geometry
• Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
• Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
--cooling rate increases
--hardness increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center low low
surface high high
 Precipitation Hardening
• Particles impede dislocations.
700
• Ex: Al-Cu system
T(°C) L CuAl2
• Procedure: 600
--Pt A: solution heat treat
 +L
+L
A
(get  solid solution) 500 
--Pt B: quench to room temp. C 
400
--Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small  crystals within 300
0 B 10 20 30 40 50
 crystals. (Al) wt% Cu
composition range
• Other precipitation needed for precipitation hardening
systems:
• Cu-Be Temp.
Pt A (sol’n heat treat)
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al
Pt C (precipitate 

Time
Pt B
 Precipitate Effect on TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• TS peaks with • %EL reaches minimum
precipitation time. with precipitation time.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.
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cip ma
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30
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tensile strength (MPa)

%EL (2 in sample)
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400 fe
20
300
149°C 10
200 204°C 149 °C
204°C
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time
 Metal Alloy Crystal Structure
Alloys
• substitutional alloys
– can be ordered or disordered
– disordered solid solution
– ordered - periodic substitution
example: CuAu FCC

Cu
Au
 Metal Alloy Crystal Structure
• Interstitial alloys (compounds)
– one metal much larger than the other
– smaller metal goes in ordered way into
interstitial “holes” in the structure of larger
metal
– Ex: Cementite – Fe3C
 Summary

• Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding

--C (low alloy steels)
--Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels)
--ductility usually decreases w/additions.
• Non-ferrous:
--Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals.
• Fabrication techniques:
--forming, casting, joining.
• Hardenability
--increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--effective means to increase strength in
Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.