FT 305: UNIT OPERATIONS IN

FOOD PROCESSING II
Thermal Processes in Food Processing

Main references:
Food Engineering Operations, 2nd Edn. J.G Brennan et. al.
Chemical Engineering, Vol 2. Coulson and Richardson
Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 2nd Edn, McCabe and
Smith
Chemical Engineers Handbook, 5th Edn, Perry J.H.
Principles of Food Processing, D. Heldman and R. Hartel
Introduction to Food Engineering, Singh, R.P., and Heldman, D.R.
(1984). Academic Press.

Contents

Drying/Dehydration
Evaporation
Crystallization
Irradiation
Freezing
Solvent Extraction

CHAPTER ONE: DRYING AND DEHYDRATION

Introduction
Dehydration can be defined as the complete removal of moisture present in the food
by evaporation or sublimation by using heat. Drying is the term applied when the
resulting food material, after dehydration, contains very little moisture i.e. it becomes
dry. Generally it can be said that two terminologies mean the same process but one is
milder than the other.
Advantages
Increased shelf-life by reduction in the water activity and enzyme inactivation.
Saving in weight and volume - storage and transportation are easier with dry
materials.
Saving in storage facilities - no refrigeration needed.
Convenience of foodstuff -some foods are conveniently taken dry.
Disadvantages
Physical characteristics can change (density, shape, size etc)
Organoleptic properties can change (flavour, texture etc)
Loss in nutritional value thermal labile constituents can degrade.

Main Methods:
1. Hot air drying:
Hot air is blown over the foodstuff and heat is transferred mainly by convention.
2. Direct contact drying:
The foodstuff is placed on a heated surface and heat is transferred by conduction.
3. Drying by application of energy from a radiating, microwave or dielectric source so
that the food temperature is raised and water is lost by evaporation. Very small
quantities of moisture can be reduced using these methods.
Microwave technology uses electromagnetic waves that pass through material and
cause its molecules to oscillate, generating heat. In conventional heating, the
materials surface heats first and then the heat moves inward. Microwave heating
generates heat within the material and heats the entire volume at about the same
rate.

4. Freezing drying:
The moisture in the food is first frozen and then directly sublimed to vapor, usually
by application of heat under very low pressure conditions. This method preserves
most of the attributes of food, including heat sensitive nutrients, colour and
shape.
It also results in improved rehydration characteristics and low bulk density. The
main disadvantages are high capital and running costs.

5. Osmotic dehydration:
Limited amounts of moisture can be removed from a food material by applying the
principles of osmosis whereby a given solvent (water in this case) moves from a
region of its high concentration to a low concentration one though a semipermeable membrane. It is not a very common drying method applied in
industry.

Further illustration on the development of the osmosis process

Note: The semi-permeable membrane allows only solvent molecules to pass

Application of osmotic pressure reverses the movement, resulting in
the Reverse Osmosis process

HOT AIR DRYING

This is the most common method of drying because of its simplicity.
Material exposed to atmosphere will gain or lose water depending on the humidity of
the air. Eventually equilibrium is reached.
moisture
Material being dried
Heated air

Moist air

Drying Curves
Let w represent the weight of the material, W the moisture content (dry weight basis)
in kg H2O/kg dry solids and t the time from the start of the drying process.
dW
dt

w AB

AB

dW
dt

C
Wc

B
Wo

D
D
time

time

We

Drying stages
Equilibration period: (A-B)
This is a very short period when the system is adjusting to the drying conditions. Its
trend is not clearly defined and. It is not a significant part of the drying cycle.
Constant Rate period: (B - C)
The surface of the wet solid is saturated and it behaves like an open surface liquid.
The surface temperature remains constant.
It is a useful period in that the material does not get overheated as the water
extracts the latent heat of vaporization during the phase change.
The driving force is the water partial pressure difference between the air and the
moisture in the material. At the "critical moisture content" the falling rate period
starts.
Falling rate period (C - D)
The rate of moisture evaporation at the surface is higher than its transfer from the
interior of the material. The drying rate falls continuously until equilibrium is reached
when the moisture content of the material equals the humidity of the drying air.
This moisture content is called the "equilibrium moisture".

Drying Cycle Analysis

Let subscript 'c' denote the constant rate period and 'f' falling rate period

dw
dt

k g A Ps Pa

(1)

Where;
Ps = Saturation pressure of water in the hot air
Pa = Partial pressure of water in the hot air
kg = Mass transfer coefficient
A = Heat transfer area
The rate of heat transfer from the hot air to the solid can be established as follows;

dQ
dt

hc A a s
c

Where
hc = Convective heat transfer coefficient.
a - s = Temperature gradient

(2)

It follows that, therefore, during the constant rate period;

dw
dQ
L

dt
dt
c

(3)
c

Where L is the latent heat of evaporation of water

dw

dt

dW
dt

hc
A a s
L

hc '
A a s
L

(4)
(5)
A'

Where
A' = Area associated with 1 kg of material

1
d s

d
(6)

d = thickness of the material, s = density of solid material

dW
dt

hc

a s
L s d

(7)

Separating the variables;

dt

d s L dW
hc a s

Integrating;
tc

c
d s L
0 dt hc a s w dW
0

tc

d s L
Wo Wc
hc a s

(8)

The duration of the constant rate drying period is thus given by equation (8) above.

The moisture movement inside the material is by any or a combination of the

following ways: Capillary movement:
Water moves by capillary action in the interstitial spaces within the material which
act as capillaries.
Liquid diffusion:
As drying proceeds the surface becomes depleted of its water content and a
gradient (concentration gradient) is set up between the surface and the interior
parts. This gradient is the moisture driving force.
Vapour diffusion:
The material exposed to high temperatures makes it possible for the moisture to
undergo phase change even within the capillaries themselves. The moisture vapour
so formed creates a partial pressure gradient with the surrounding air. In this case
it is this partial pressure diffference that results into the migration of the moisture in
form of vapour to the exterior of the food material. A practical drying process
involves a combination of these mechanisms. The dominant mechanism controls
the drying rate.

For materials depending on the capillary movement, the equation during the falling
rate period is given by:-

dW
dt

K W We
f

dW
dt
c
Where K =
Wc We

Separating variables and integrating;

d s L Wc We Wc We
tf
ln

hc a s
W

W
e

(9)

Equation (9) gives the duration of the falling rate period for capillary mode controlled
moisture transfer.

Effects of Hot Air Drying

There are two main effects of hot air drying, namely the migration of solubles and
shrinkage.
Solubles migration:
As the drying process continues the water from the bulk of the material being dried is
driven to the surface and consequently evaporates. This water movement results in
the migration of water-soluble constituents of the material from the interior. On
reaching the surface, however, these solubles are deposited there as the water
(solvent) evaporates.
Water vapour
Solubles deposit at and near the surface
Hot air

Food material

Shrinkage:
With low initial drying rate the resulting dry material will be of a tough texture, high
bulk density and slow reconstitutability. High initial drying rate results in low bulk
density, rapid reconstitutability and soft texture.
Low initial drying rate

High initial drying rate

- high bulk density

- slow reconstitution
- tough texture

- low bulk density

- rapid reconstitution
- soft texture

HOT AIR DRYING EQUIPMENT

1. Cabinet drier

- Direct combustion is the most efficient way of heating the air but problems of
contamination puts it down in many cases
- Heat exchangers can be used to avoid contamination but the efficiency is lower
- Steam heating is even less efficient but due to its availability a plant sites it is often
used.
- Air velocities used range from 2-5m/s. Too high a velocity would result in the
cooling
of the product.

Alternative layout

The hot air flow can be either co-current or counter-current to the direction of trays.
Co-current flow allows for high initial drying rates while counter-current flow results in
low initial drying rates. Product requirements determine the airflow direction.

Side view for a tunnel drier

3) Conveyor belt drier

Single stage

Multiple stage

Fluidized-bed drier details

Steam coils

6) Spray drier

- These are used for fine particle system (powders) 10-200 m

- The time taken for drying is very short (1-10 s)
-The process is continuous.
Due to evaporative cooling the temperature of the product is usually low. The
equipment comprises of 4 sections;
(i) Air heating and circulation
(ii) Spray forming devices
(iii) Drying chamber
(iv) Product recovery
Usually the heating is by direct method. The air has to be filtered before
entering the system

Layout details

Product Recovery
This is a very difficult operation. Usually wipers can be used and sometimes air
brooms are used. For the fines in the air, Cyclones, Filters etc, are used.
Cyclone separator:
These use the principle of centrifugation to separate fine particles from the air.
The mixture enters tangentially to the separator and is whirled inside the
separator cylinder. The particles are thrown outwards because they are denser
than air. The air is displaced towards the center of the cylinder and thus separated
out via a different outlet. The powder falls under the action of gravity and is
collected separately.

Cyclone separator details

Product and air movement in the cyclone separator

CHAPTER TWO: EVAPORATION

Introduction
Evaporation is one of the main methods used for concentration of aqueous solutions.
The meaning of the term is the removal of water from a solution by boiling the liquor
in a suitable vessel, the evaporator, and withdrawing the vapour. There are three
major applications of evaporation in industry:(i) Reduction in liquid volume so as to reduce storage, packaging and transportation
costs.
(ii) Pre-concentration of liquid prior to further processing e.g. crystallization and spray
drying.
(iii) To reduce the "water activity" as an aid to preservation.
Evaporation is carried out by adding heat to the solution to vaporise the solvent. The
heat is supplied principally to provide for the latent heat of vaporization. The normal
heating medium is low pressure steam but for special applications Dowtherm or flue
gases may be adopted. The design of an evaporation unit requires the practical
application of data on heat transfer to liquids together with realization of what
happens to the fluid during concentration.

Factors Influencing Liquid Boiling Point

The driving force for heat transfer in the heat exchanger of an evaporator is the
temperature difference between the heating medium and the liquid undergoing
evaporation. The boiling point fixes the temperature of the evaporating liquor so if
one could obtain data on this parameter then it makes it possible to work out the
driving force since the only unknown will be the heating medium temperature. The
boiling point of the liquid being heated up is influenced by the following factors;
-External pressure
A liquid boils when the vapour pressure it exerts equals the external pressure to
which it is subjected.
-Dissolved solutes (BPR)
The boiling point of a solution is higher than that of the pure solvent at the same
pressure. The more concentrated the solution the higher the boiling point. The
difference between the boiling point of a solution and that of the corresponding pure
solvent at that pressure is what is known as the Boiling Point Rise (BPR)- Since a
given liquid boils when its vapour pressure equals the external pressure, any
reduction in partial pressure of the liquid will result in increasing its boiling point. A
solution will thus boil at a higher temperature than the corresponding pure solvent at
the same pressure because the dissolved solutes in the solution reduce its vapour
pressure. The magnitude of this boiling point elevation is governed by Raoult's law;

Raoult's law;
PA PAo X A

Where PA is the partial pressure of the solution and PoA is the vapour pressure of the
pure solvent A at the same pressure. XA is the mole fraction of the solvent in the
solution.
It follows that, therefore, under similar pressure conditions a solution will boil at a
temperature higher than that of the corresponding pure solvent. The magnitude of
this Boiling Point Rise (BPR) will depend on the amount of solutes dissolved in the
solution, in other word it will depend on the concentration of the solution.
At a higher concentrations the BPR will be proportionally higher, as governed by the
mole fraction (XA) of the solute in the solution. This phenomenon is explained by the
Dhring's rule, which states that a linear relationship exists between the
temperatures at which two solutions exert the same vapor pressure. The rule is often
used to compare a pure liquid and a solution at a given concentration. A chart, called
the Dhring's plot, can be constructed to express the relationship between the boiling
point of a solution and that for the corresponding pure solvent.

A typical Dhring plot for NaCl solutions

- Hydrostatic head
At any point below its free surface, the liquid is subjected to a pressure equal to the
sum of the pressure on the surface (Po) and the pressure corresponding to the
hydrostatic head "hg" Where 'h' is the depth of the point below the free surface. The
liquid at a submerged point will boil at a temperature higher than that at the surface
due to the increased pressure at this point.

Po
h
A

Pressure at A; PA = Po + hg ,
Where is the density of the
liquid and g is the acceleration
due to gravity

The influence of the temperature difference:

The magnitude of the temperature difference cannot be varied just arbitrarily because
of the effect of film boiling or pool boiling;

hmax

25 C
T
When boiling begins vapour bubbles are formed at the hottest surface (closest to the
heating medium). These bubbles raise by convective action, creating space for colder
portions of liquid to come closer to the heating medium. As the temperature difference
between the heating medium and the cold fluid is increased more heat is transferred
and the number and rate of bubble formation increases. If this rate is further
increased the number of bubbles formed reaches a stage where collisions among
them begins to happen.

This results in bubble coalescence, a situation that creates larger bubbles. These
larger bubbles collide and coalesce and even larger bubbles are formed. Eventually
a vapour film is created between the heating surface and the bulk of the liquid. This
results in reduction of heat transfer coefficient h and the corresponding reduction in
heat transfer rate, since the film is a relatively poor conductor of heat. This happens
after hmax has been attained, at around 25 C temperature difference. Further
increase in the temperature difference increases the film thickness and hence the
fall in the heat transfer rate.

Graphical visualization: Nucleate Transition Leidenfrost point Film boiling

(a):Nucleate boiling, (b):Max heat flux- qmax or hmax, (c-d): qmax Leidenfrost point,
e-f: beyond the Leidenfrost point

A typical example showing the various boiling regimes

Basic Designs
1. Horizontal tube (Steam goes inside the calandria tubes)

2. Vertical tube (Steam goes outside the tubes)

Vapour

3. Film evaporators:

CALCULATIONS
Assumption: All the heat energy given out by the heating medium (normally steam) is
utilized in affecting the evaporation process i.e negligible heat losses.
Heat given out by the heating medium is given by the Fourier heat transfer rate
equation:
Q = UAT = heat load
Where Q = The rate of heat transfer (W)
A = Heat transfer area (m2)
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (Wm-2 K-1)
T=The temperature difference between the heating and the boiling liquor (K)
The heat load can be obtained from energy and material balances;

For a single effect evaporator symbolized below;

Heat (energy) balance:

V0 0 F C p t1 t f 1 V1

Neglecting heat losses, assuming only condensation latent heat of steam is

utilized.

Latent heat of vaporization/condensation.

x Mass fraction of solids in the feed
Cp= Average specific heat capacity of feed

Material (Mass) balance:

Overall:

F P1 V1
Component:

i solids : FX f
ii Solvent :

P1 X p

F 1 X f V1 1 X p P

MULTIPLE EFFECT OPERATION

In order to maximize the use of steam available, the vapour produced from the first
effect can be used as the heating medium in the second effect, provided the boiling
point in this second effect is reduced so that an adequate temperature difference is
maintained. This boiling reduction can be achieved by operating the second effect at
a lower pressure (vacuum operation).
This operation is not limited to only two effects but it can be extended further to
triples, quadruple effects etc.
These multiple effect systems can either be "forward feed" 'backward feed', parallel'
or 'mixed feed' systems.

Various evaporators :Visuals

Single-effect horizontal tube evaporator

Multiple-effect (Quadruple-effect)
Falling film evaporator system

Multiple-effect (Triple-effect)
vertical tube evaporator system

Multiple-effect vertical tube evaporation system

CHAPTER THREE: CRYSTALLIZATION

Introduction
Crystallization is mainly used as a separation process in most food industries. It
can be defined as the separation of a solid crystalline phase from a liquid phase.
The driving force for the crystallization process is the concentration difference in a
solution. Only when the solution is supersaturated does crystallization become
possible.
Supersaturation can be achieved by any of the following methods;
1. Cooling of the solution - this lowers the solubility
2. Evaporation of the solvent - increasing the concentration
3. Adiabatic evaporation (evaporation of the solvent resulting in cooling of the
solution)
4. "Salting out" by adding a substance that reduces the solubility of the crystal
forming substance.
Impurities can either enhance or reduce the solubility of the solute in the solvent.
Impurities can thus be used as salting out or salting in agents.

Consider the equilibrium diagram of a solution of sucrose in water below;

30
Temperature [ C]

a
20
c
Solution

10

Solution + sucrose
b

0
Solution + ice
-10
c
-20
0

Ice + sucrose
20
40
60
80
Concentration of sucrose [% by weight]

From the solution region, to enter the supersaturation region (sucrose + solution) either
evaporation of the solvent [a], cooling of the solution [b] or both methods can be applied
simultaneously (adiabatic evaporation) [c].

Solubility coefficient (C) is defined by the following expression:-

Solubility of solute in impure solution

C
Solubility of solute in pure solvent
Both being at the same temperature.
Nucleation
Crystallization or crystal formation does not necessarily start when the solution
reaches its saturation point. Usually the immediate effect is to produce a
supersaturated solution. In many cases small seed crystals may be added and
sometimes even small quantities of impurities may act as nuclei.
Spontaneous nucleation is a process which takes place with some reluctance and it is
thought to depend upon the existence of random variations in concentration within a
given solution.
Mechanical shock or ultrasonic vibrations may also initiate crystallization.

The rate of nucleation is related to the supersaturating in the following graph;

Rate of nucleation

S'

Supersaturation (S)
Where the supersaturation (S) is defined as follows:S

Concentration of solute in solvent

Concentration of solute in solvent in a saturated solution

Both being at the same temperature.

The curve shows that the nucleation rate is very low at low 'S' values but it increases
rapidly beyond a certain S value, at S'. The reason for this behaviour is that it can
be shown that the solubility of small crystals is higher than that of large ones. As a
consequence, at low values of S when the crystals start forming they dissolve back
into solution. At high S values (at S') bigger crystals form and since their solubility is
low they stay in that form and hence the rapid increase in nucleation rate.
Crystal growth
Subsequent to nucleation, crystals will grow in a supersaturated solution, drawing
material from the liquid phase. The rate of growth of a crystal in a solution depends
on both the mechanism of material transport to the surface of the crystal and the
mechanism of surface deposition. Stirring the solution can improve the transport of
material. Presence of impurities may affect the rate of crystal growth, in most cases
reducing it.

SELECTED APPLICATIONS
1. Winterisation of oils
Most edible vegetable oils contain some glycerides with melting points high
enough to solidify at refrigerator or winter temperatures (say 5 C). This is usually
the case particularly with cottonseed oil and highly hydrogenated soybean oil (105
Iodine value). This solidification results in turbidity in the oils. It thus impairs its
pouring characteristics and spoils its appearance.
Crystallization by cooling can be applied and later on separation of the glyceride
crystals is done by filtration. The oils become winterised and stay liquid at winter
or low temperatures.
2. Freeze concentration
This process involves fractional crystallization of ice crystals from liquid foods. It is
used to enhance the alcohol content of wines, concentration of citrus juices,
vinegar etc. Its main advantage is that heat degradation is eliminated. However,
the degree of concentration achievable is limited and the process is more
expensive than concentration by evaporation.
The separation of ice crystals from the mother liquor also poses an economic
constraint.

3. Production of salt and sugar

These two common domestic products are mainly produced by crystallization of
the respective solutions using evaporative concentration. Sugar (sucrose) is
mostly produced by seeding the cane (or beet) juice syrup with finely ground
sugar crystals because to attain the required high concentration (super
saturation) by evaporation alone results in heat damage when the temperature of
the syrup goes beyond 85 C (coloured solids are produced, mostly brown in
colour, due to caramelisation).
Salt (NaCl) is relatively stable in this range of temperatures and supersaturation
can be attained by boiling alone.
The rate of cooling of the supersaturated solution controls the size and shape of
the crystals produced. Fast cooling results in small, relatively uniform crystals.
Slow cooling results in large irregular crystals.

EQUIPMENT
1. Batch crystallizers

2. Continuous Crystallizers
a Evaporation space
b Liquid space
c Sedimentation zone
d Fluidized bed
e Recirculation pump
f Feed solution
g Crystal removal point
h Flash vapour

Continuous Crystallizers

Feed

Product

Visuals

CHAPTER FOUR: IRRADIATION

Irradiation is a method of food preservation by use of accelerated electrons, Xrays, -rays and other forms of radiation. The rays cause ionization, which in turn
facilitates certain chemical changes in the food. In most cases it is the water
component of the food that is most affected by irradiation. If electrons are used
then they are referred to as leptrons (light particles). One of the principal
advantages of this method is that the food can be treated after packaging.

Food irradiation is a processing technique with similar results to freezing or

pasteurisation. During this procedure the food is exposed to doses of ionising energy,
or radiation. At low doses, irradiation extends a products shelf life. At higher doses,
this process kills insects, moulds, bacteria and other potentially harmful microorganisms.
Considerable scientific research over the past five decades indicates that food
irradiation is a safe and effective form of processing.
Food irradiation has been approved in 40 countries including the United States,
Japan, China, France and Holland. In certain countries, Food Standards Codes
require that irradiated foods will be clearly labeled so that consumers can make an
informed choice.
There is a common misconception that irradiated food is radioactive. The radiation
used to process foods is very different from the radioactive fallout that occurs after,
for example, a nuclear accident.
In food processing, the radioactive source never contacts the food and the sources
used emit only gamma rays and no neutrons. That means the food cannot become
radioactive. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the European Union (EU) are
two internationally recognised bodies which support food irradiation.

Terminology
The following terms are used based on the specific aim and type of the process;
Radicidation is the process of radiation used to kill vegetative bacteria. The treatment
is intended to destroy organisms of public health importance. The product may not
necessarily attain commercial sterility.
Radurisation is the process in which treatment is meant to increase the shelf-life by
general reduction in the level of vegetative bacteria.
Radappertization is the process of radiation treatment applied to canned foods.
Usually a commercially sterile product is produced.
Radiation disinfestations is a treatment by radioactive ionization to prevent insect
pests from multiplying. They die out after one generation.
Sprout inhibition in stored vegetables and growth inhibition in mushrooms can also be
achieved through irradiation.
Other irradiation processes are not necessarily used for preservation but are applied to
effect desired changes in the food to improve some of its qualities. Alteration of
postharvest ripening and senescence of fruits, Polymerization or de-polymerization are
some of the functions that can be achieved by irradiation.

Radiation Sources
The most common radioactive source used in the food industry is Cobalt 60 (60Co)
but sometimes Caecium 137 (137 Cs) can also be used.
Cobalt has a half-life of 5.3 years while Caecium has 30 years.
Types of radiation
Two factors of consideration: (i) Energy, and (ii) Dose
For electron beams the energy is measured in terms of electron volts (eV)
1 eV = 1.6 x 10 19J.
This is a very small unit and hence multiples such as keV and MeV are used in
practical situations.
For X- and -rays the energy used can be worked out from the Plancks equation;
E = h
Where E = Energy
h = Plancks constant (4.13 eV), = frequency (Hertz)
If radiation intensity is limited to around 5 MeV there are no problems of nuclear
transformations that are not desirable in the food products.
The dose is a measure of the quantity of radiation. The energy absorbed from the
radiation is a measure of the dose. The unit of the dose is the Gray (Gy).
1 Gray 1Jkg-1
The doses used amount up to 10 kGy.

Measurements
Most of the radiation energy is not absorbed by the food in the same way as heat
used for heat treatment remains mostly as heat. This means that practical
measurements of energy of radiation are chemical and/or optical since calorimetric
changes in the irradiated food are very small.
Oxidation of Ferrous sulphate, under certain conditions, is linear with the dose and
hence can be used as a measure of the same under laboratory conditions.
In industrial applications, a visible change is more convenient. Colour changes on
certain materials under incident radiation can give an approximation of the dose.
An electrical readout can be obtained from an ionization chamber. The amount of
ionization produced is related to the dose if the medium is not full of ions by itself. The
radiation used in such cases must be of an electromagnetic wave and not of a particle
beam.
For particle beams like an electron beam, the fact that electrons loose their energy
when they penetrate a material, the attenuation of the beam is logarithmically related
to the amount of incident radiation.

Beam attenuation
Intensity

Depth of
penetration

The maintenance of a uniform distribution is another problem. Proper engineering

arrangements and geometry have to be applied to obtain a uniform distribution of
radiation in the food product. Shields must be provided for personnel working in such
facilities and minimum standard radiations permitted must not be exceeded.
Geometrical arrangements:

More details

CHAPTER FIVE: FREEZING

Introduction
Freezing is another preservation method for foods. The earliest application was on
meat for exportation purposes. Canned meat has been used for this purpose but the
product is not that much desirable as compared to normal frozen products.
However, the quality of the product deteriorates with this method of preservation. The
most affected quality attribute is the flavour and texture of vegetables and fish.
The use of blanching to stop enzymatic activities before freezing has helped to
partially alleviate this situation.
The mechanism of preservation action by freezing is that at product temperatures
below 0C there is a significant reduction in growth rates of microorganisms and the
corresponding deterioration of the product due to microbial activity.
The same temperature influence will apply to most other reactions that might normally
occur in the product, such as enzymatic and oxidation reactions. In addition the
formation of ice crystals within the product reduces the availability of water to
participate in reactions.

During the freezing process the water in the material will begin to crystallize (ice
formation) and the stable phase will be the crystalline phase if the cooling medium is
at a lower temperature (Tm > 0oC) as compared to the material temperature.
The material's concentration will increase as a result of water crystallizing out. This
results in the depression of the freezing point of the material (colligative properties). A
time will come when equilibrium is reached where the water vapour pressure of the
solution is equal to the water vapour pressure of pure water (saturation pressure) in
the ice. If cooling is continued the solid matter will concentrate to the extent that it will
form an eutectic mixture.
The usual freezing temperatures for most foods lie in the range - 18oC to - 30oC.
The proportion of fresh food preserved by freezing is highly related to the degree of
economic development in a society.
As countries become wealthier, their demand for high-valued commodities increases,
primarily due to the effect of income on the consumption of high-valued commodities
in developing countries.
The frozen food industry requires accompanying developments and facilities for
transporting, storing, and marketing their products from the processing plant to the
consumer Thus, a large amount of capital investment is needed for these types of
facilities.

Freezing time
In the freezing process, it is very important to be able to judge the time requirements
for the product to get completely frozen. This is due to the fact that the rate of
freezing has a high influence on the quality and safety attributes of the food
It is difficult to give a clear definition of the freezing time because the process goes on
and on. It is agreed upon to use the following definitions;
Nominal freezing time. This starts when the surface of the body reaches 0oC and
stops when the thermal centre of the body reaches a temperature 10oC below the
nominal freezing point.
Effective freezing time. This is the time to cool a body from a given initial average
temperature of that body until the thermal centre (the point that freezes last) has
reached a second given temperature.
The nominal freezing time indicates the period for most of the ice formation to take
place. It is not suitable for rating food freezing equipment. The effective freezing time
is a way of clearly specifying the amount of time required to effect freezing in an
industrial apparatus.

The temperature history at the thermal centre of a material undergoing freezing can
be presented as given in the following diagram;

The fall in temperature after the nominal freezing point is quite rapid because the
thermal conductivity of ice is about five times that for liquid water.

Dimensionless Groups for freezing time estimation

Two dimensionless groups are frequently used in the evaluation of freezing
parameters, particularly in the estimation of freezing times.
1. Fourier Number:

Fo

2. Kossovitch Number:

k .t
Cp l2

Ko

C p o 2

Where k = thermal conductivity of the solid

Cp= specific heat of solid

= density of frozen material

t = time from start of cooling
l = the shortest distance from the thermal centre
o freezing temperature
2 temperature of cooling medium
L= latent heat of fusion

Stefan equation;

exp
erf
4 Fo

4 Fo

1

Ko
4 Fo

Where;
x

exp x dx

2
erf ( x)

The so called error function

The reciprocal of this equation (implying the Kossovitch Number, Ko) can be
expanded as a power series;

2 F0

1
1
1

.... K o
2
6 Fo 90 Fo

2 F0

1
1
1

.... K o
2
6 Fo 90 Fo

If the Fourier Number, Fo, is large; 2Fo Ko ; approximate but tolerable equation for
practical purposes.
Consider a material initially unfrozen but at the freezing point and that finally the
material will freeze and cool to the temperature of the cooling medium, Then;
Heat removed during phase change = m L
Heat removed during cooling of the frozen material = m Cp

Ko

mL
L

mC p C p

Heat removed during phase change

Maximum heat removed during cooling frozen material

Position at time t;

If the Ko Number is large heat removed during phase change is large relative to
heat remove during cooling of frozen material conditions of heat transfer
approaches steady state i.e. the freezing front is moving slowly and the quasistatic assumption can be made.
Here the assumption made is that the freezing front is moving very slowly to the
extent that it can be assumed to be stationary and the frozen material thickness x
can be assumed to be constant. This allows the application of normal conduction
equations for fixed thickness materials. Plank made the following assumptions for
the freezing time of an infinite slab initially unfrozen but at its freezing temperature.

1. The material freezes completely at the nominal freezing point so that there is a
clear latent heat of fusion 'L' released at a definite temperature 0
2. The thermal conductivity of the frozen material has a constant value 'k
3. There is a constant heat transfer coefficient 'h' at all cooled surfaces.
4. There is a constant cooling medium temperature 2.
5. The density of the material is the same in the frozen and unfrozen states and
does not change with temperature.
6. The quasi-static approximation is valid.
Plank analyzed the situation using these assumptions and came up with the
following equation for the estimation of the freezing
2 time (for an infinite slab)

L l l

tf
h 2k

For any other geometry;

Fo DK o
G
Bi

Where Bi

hl
, the Biot Number (another dimensionless number).
k

D and G are shape factors. They depend on the geometry of the material undergoing
freezing. Usually they are obtained from freezing charts. For an arbitrary shape the
principle of inscribing the body into a known geometry figure can be used for practical
estimates. D is calculated from the following equation;

The volume of the body

Cooled surface area x shortest distance from the thermal centre

The value of G is obtained from charts but it is never far away from 0.5. It depends
on the deviation of the material geometry from that of a brick shape.

For a brick shaped figure;

Charts for variation of G with freezing body geometry

Freezing Equipment and Methods

The food material can be brought into contact with a solid refrigerated surface or
immersed into a refrigerated liquid or gas.
1. Solid surface contact
(i) Direct contact
Pressure

Food
package
Pressure

Refrigerated plates

Visual

(ii) Indirect contact

Food packages

Plate

Refrigerant

Packages must not be under-filled or overfilled for heat transfer reasons. If there is
under-filling then the freezing time for that particular package is drastically increased.

2. Immersion Freezing
The material is dipped directly in the freezing medium. To avoid material transfer or
exchange between the medium and the food, proper packaging is required which
will withstand the low temperatures. The packaging restricts heat transfer to a
certain extent.

3. Gas Freezing (commonly air)

Air velocities are limited because if high values are used then the air gets heated up.
Higher velocities are good for transfer purposes but there is no point to increase
the heat transfer and also increase the medium temperature at the same time. A
compromise has to be reached. Fluidised bed freezers are very efficient. The
turbulent motion makes it possible to freeze individual items. Diced vegetables are
an example of food best frozen by this method.

4. Boiling liquid
Liquid Nitrogen (N2) is the most popular in this case. Liquid Nitrogen is called
Cryogen hence the term cryogenic freezing.
Boiling a low boiling point liquid to a gas on the surface of the material being frozen
extracts heat as phase change heat (latent heat). The refrigerant is then
condensed back of liquid.

CHAPTER SIX: SOLVENT EXTRACTION

Introduction
Solvent extraction, in which one component is removed or recovered from a
mixture of liquids by addition of a solvent in which the component is soluble, is used
where evaporation is too expensive or where the components of the mixture have
approximately equal or low volatilities. In addition, solvent extraction is used for
separating heat sensitive materials or where the solute is present in small
concentrations.
Typical applications in the food industry include edible oil extraction from natural
products such as peanuts, soya beans, sunflower seeds, cottonseeds and many
other oil seeds. Another major application is in the extraction of sugar from sugar
beet, where water is used as the solvent because of the high solubility of sugar in
water.
Factors controlling the operation include the area of contact between the streams,
the time of contact, the properties of materials so far as the equilibrium distribution
of the transferred component is concerned, and the number of stages. The solid
matrix may hinder diffusion and so control the rate of extraction to some extent.

Operations involved
The separation of product b from a feed stream A involves three stages, firstly
mixing with the solvent S with which in theory, A should be completely immiscible
though this is never the case; secondly, the settling stage in which the extract
phase (the exit solvent stream) is separated from the raffinate (the exit treated feed
stream); and thirdly, solvent recovery and recycle.

There are four ways in which this operation may be carried out;
(a) Single contact
In this system, the efficiency of mass transfer depends upon the equilibrium
conditions, the degree of agitation in the mixer and the ratio Feed/Solvent.

(b) Multiple co-current contact

This is a costly mode of operation with two stages being the most economical
layout. Maximum extraction efficiency is obtained when equal amounts of solvent
are introduced into each stage.

(c) Multiple counter-current contact

This is a highly efficient arrangement, usually involving 2 to 5 stages.

Fresh solvent S is introduced into the last stage where it meets a relatively depleted
raffinate R2. The extract E3 is sent to the second stage where, being low in solute, it
acts as a solvent for that stage. The extract E2 from the second stage is fed to the
first stage where it meets the fresh feed F, which is rich in solute. The extract E1 is
taken for separation and solvent recovery.

(d) Continuous counter-current contact

In this mode the solvent is introduced at the bottom of a column as a dispersion of
drops that are allowed to rise through the feed. The feed constitutes the continuous
phase and it is fed at the top of the column. The column may be packed with ceramic
rings for example, or some other device such as rotary discs or plates.