U5MEA08-ENGG

METROLOGY &
INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT- I
METROLOGY
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Metrology.

Metrology defines as the

Science of pure measurement.
But in engineering purposes, it
in restricted to measurements
of length and angles and other
qualities which are expressed
in linear or angular terms.

Units and Standards

Units of Measurement:
C.G.S. System of Units
Centimeter Gram Second system of unit
M.K.S. System of Units:
Meter kilogram second system of units
International System (SI) of Units:
the meter (m), kilogram (k), second (s), and
ampere (A) of the MKSA system and, in
addition, the Kelvin (K) and the candela (cd)
as the units of temperature and luminous

Terminology in
instrumentation

Precision

Degree

of
repetitiveness. If an instrument is not
precise it will give different results for
the same dimension for the repeated
readings.
Accuracy The maximum amount
by which the result differ from true
value(ie) Closeness to true value

 Calibration

is the process of establishing the

relationship between a measuring device
and the units of measure. This is done by
comparing a devise or the output of an
instrument to a standard having known
measurement characteristics.
Sensitivity
It is ratio between output signal to input
signal

 Readability is a measure of an
instrument's ability to display
incremental changes in its output
value.
True size Theoretical size of a
dimension which is free from errors.
Actual size size obtained through
measurement with permissible error

 Repeatability
is
the
variation
in
measurements taken by a single person or
instrument on the same item and under the
same conditions. A measurement may be
said to be repeatable when this variation is
smaller than some agreed limit.

Reproducibility is one of the main

principles of the scientific method, and
refers to the ability of a test or experiment
to be accurately reproduced, or replicated,
by someone else working independently.

 Methods of measurement.
1. Direct Method

2. Indirect Method

3. Comparison Method

4. Coincidence Method.
Classification of measuring
instruments.
1. Angle measuring instruments

2. Length measuring instruments

3. Instruments for surface finish

4. Instruments for deviations.

Sources of error

Controllable Errors Calibration Errors ,ambient Conditions ,

Stylus pressure, avoidable errors
Random Errors
These occur randomly and the specific
causes
of
such
errors
cannot
be
determined, but likely sources of this type
of error are small variations in the position
of setting standards and workpiece, slight
displacement of lever joints in the
measuring
joints
in
the
measuring
instrument,

Parallax Error :
On most dials the indicating finger
or pointer lies in a plane parallel to
the scale but displaced a small
distance
away
to
allow
free
movement of the pointer. It is then
essential to observe the pointer
along a line normal to the scale
otherwise a reading error will occur.

Line and End standard

measurements
Line standard
Length is expressed as the distance
between two lines.
End standard
Length is expressed as the distance
between two flat parallel faces

Linear measuring
instruments

Straight edge.
Outside caliper.
Inside caliper.
Vernier caliper
Screw gauge
vernier height gauge
vernier depth gauge
Dial gauges

Comparators

Classification of comparators
Mechanical
Electrical and Electronics comparators
Optical comparators
Pneumatic comparators
Fluid displacement comparators
Projection comparators.
Multi check comparators
Automatic Gauging Machines
Electro-Mech. Comparators.

. Classification of
measuring Instruments.

According to the functions:

Length measuring instrument
Angle measuring instrument
Instrument for checking deviation
from geometrical forms
Instrument for determining the
quality of surface finish.

 According to the accuracy.

1. Most accurate instruments
Example - light interference instrument
2. Less accurate instrument
Example - Tool room Microscope,
Comparators, Optimizer
3. Still less accurate instrument
Example - Dial indicator, vernier caliper.

Angular measurements
Measuring the angle of Taper.

1. Vernier bevel Protractor

2. Tool room microscope

3. Sine bar and dial gauge

4. Auto Collimator

5. Taper measuring machine

6. Roller, Slip gauge, and

micrometer.

Angle measurement
Sine bar
Sine Centre:
Sine Table
Taper Measurement
Using Precisions Balls and Rollers:-

Slip Gauges

Direct precise measurement, where the accuracy of the work piece

demands it.
For checking accuracy of venire calipers, micro metes, and such
other measuring instruments.
Setting up a comparator to specific dimension.
For measuring angle of work piece and also for angular setting in
conjunction with a sine bar.
The distances of plugs, spigots, etc. on fixture are often best
measured with the slip gauges or end bars for large dimensions.
To check gap between parallel locations such as in gap gauges or
between two mating parts.
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of high grade steel with
exceptionally close tolerances. These blocks are suitably hardened
though out to ensure maximum resistance to wear. They are then
stabilized by heating and cooling successively in stages so that
hardening stresses are removed.

Surface finish measurement

Surface finish refers to the quality finish
or roughness over the surface.
Surface texture :

Repetitive or random deviations form

the normal surface which form the pattern
of the surface. Surface texture include
roughness, waveness, lay and flows.
. Primary texture :
This refers to
the roughness of a surface, as opposed to
its waviness (secondary texture)

Methods of measuring
surface finish

1) Surface Inspection
(or) comparison

.
method

2. Direct Instrument

a) Touch Inspection

b) Visual Inspection

c) Scratch Inspection

d) Microscopic Inspection

e) Surface photograph

f) Micro - Interferometer

g) Wallace surface Dynamometer

h) Reflected light Intensity

Roughness measurement
Maximum Peak to Valley. Height of
Roughness.
Root Mean Square Value (R.M.S.
Value)..
Centre Line Average Method (C.L.A.
Value)

Surface finish measuring

instruments
Profilometer.
The Tomlinson Surface Meter
Taylor-Hobson Talysurf.

UNIT IV
TEMPERATUREMEASUREMENTS

CLASSIFICATION OF
TEMPERATUREMEASURING
EQUIPMENTS

Bimetallic Thermometers:
Principle Involved : These use the
principles of metallic expansion when
temperature changes.
A bimetallic strip is shown in
figure which is straight initially. When
temperature changes, its shape also
changes into an arc.

BIMETALIC THERMOMETER
USE
The displacement of the free end can be converted into an
electric signal through use of secondary transducers like
variable resistance, inductance and capacitance transducers.
Figure shows a strip of bimetal in the form of a spiral. The
curvature of the strip varies with temperature. This causes
the pointer to deflect. A scale is provided which has been
calibrated to show the temperature directly.

This kind of spiral is mostly used in devices measuring

ambient temperature and air-conditioning thermostats.

Advantages of Bimetallic Thermometers

1. Simple
2. Inexpensive
3. Accuracy of 0.5% to 2%

RESISTANCE
THERMOMETERS
Basic principle of resistance
thermometers?
When an electric conductor is
subjected to temperature change the
resistance of the conductor changes.
This change in resistance of the
conductor becomes a measure of the
change
in
temperature
when
calibrated.

Thermocouples
Principles Involved : When heat is
applied to the junction of two
dissimilar metals, an e.m.f. is
generated. (Figure)

Thermistors:
Thermistor is a temperature sensitive variable
resistor made of a ceramic like semiconducting
material. They are made of metal oxides and their
mixtures like oxides of cobalt, copper, nickel, etc.
Unlike metals, thermistors respond negatively to
temperature. They behave as resistors with a high
negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
Typically, for each 1 C rise in temperature, the
resistance of a thermistor decreases by about 5%.
This high sensitivity to temperature changes
makes the thermistor useful in precision
temperature measurements. The resistance of
thermistors vary from 0.5 to 0.75M . Variation
of resistivity with temperature is shown in figure.

UNIT III
FLOW MEASUREMENT

FLOW METERS
Flow meter measures the actual flow
rate.
TYPES OF FLOWMETERS
VENTURIMETER
PITOT TUBE
FLOW NOZZLE
ORIFICE PLATE

VENTURIMETER
USES
1. Low head loss about 10% of
differential pressure head.
2. High co-efficient of discharge.
3. Capable of measuring high flow rates
in pipes having very large diameter.
4. Characteristics are well established
so they are extensively used in process
and other industries.

VENTURI PRINCIPLE
This is just like an orifice meter. It has three distinct
parts, namely convergent cone, throat and divergent
cone. A manometer measures the pressure difference
between two sections as shown in figure.

Let
a1
Area at the inlet (1-1)

A2
Area at the section (2-2)

x
Pressure head difference

Cd
Discharge coefficient

,Q=

Cd a1 a2 2 g x
a 21 a2 2

Orifice METER
Let

a1 Area at section I-I

a0 Area of orifice

Cd Discharge coefficient

Then, Flow rate

ROTO METERS
Rotameter:
A rotameter is a variable area type flow meter. It
consists of a vertical tapered tube with a float which
is free to move within the tube. The fluid goes from
the bottom to the top. When no fluid flows, the float
rests at the bottom of the tube. The float is made of
such a diameter that it completely blocks the inlet.
When flow starts in the pipeline and fluid reaches
the float, the buoyant effect of fluid makes the float
lighter. The float passage remains closed until the
pressure of the flowing material plus the buoyance
effect exceeds the downward pressure due to the
float weight. Thus, depending on flow, the float
assumes a position. Thus the float gives the reading
of flow rate.

Pitot Tube
Principle: Transformation of kinetic
energy of a liquid into potential energy
in the form of a static head.
Figure shows a pitot tube installed in a
pipeline where it acts like a probe. The
tube consists of two concentric tubes,
the inner tube with its open ends
faces the liquid.

Pitot tube principle

outer tube has a closed end and has four to eight
holes in its wall. The pressure in the outer tube is
the static pressure in the line. Total pressure is
sum of static pressure and the pressure due to the
impact of fluid.
If P
pressure)

Ps

Pressure

at

inlet

(Stagnation

Static pressure
Density, then

Velocity v = from which flow rate is determined.

UNIT V
FORCE MEASUREMENT

FORCE MEASUREMENT
Force.
The mechanical quantity which changes
or tends to change the motion or shape
of a body to which it is applied is called
force.
.Force measureing equipments
load cells
Load cells are devices used for force
measurement through indirect methods.

Force measuring
equipments
Scale and balance

a. Equal arm balance

b. Unequal arm balance

c. Pendulum scale
2. Elastic force meter Proving ring
3. Load cell

a. Strain gauge load cell

b. Hydraulic load cell

c. Pneumatic load cell

Torque measuring
equipments
Mechanical torsion meter
Optical torsion meter
Electrical torsion meter
Strain gauge torsion meter

Types of strain gauges.

Unbonded strain gauge

Bonded strain gauge
Fine wire strain gauge
Metal foil strain gauge
Piezo-resistive strain gauge

PROVING RING

Use of proving Rings

Proving rings are steel rings used for calibration of material

testing machines in situations where, due to their bulkness, dead
weight standards cannot be used.
P ring is a circular ring of rectangular section and may support
tensile or comprehensive force across its diameter.
the change in radius in the direction of force, is given by
where d is the outer diameter of the ring and
K is stiffness.
Deflection of the ring is measured using a precision micrometer.
To get precise measurements, one edge of the micrometer is
mounted on a vibrating reed which is plucked to obtain a vibratory
motion. The micrometer contact is then moved forward until a
noticeable damping of the vibration is observed.

LOAD CELLS
Use of Load Cell
Force
transducers
intended
for
weighing purposes are called load cells.
Instead of using total deflection as a
measure of load, strain gauge load cells
measure load in terms of unit strains. A
load cell utilizes an elastic member as
the primary transducer and strain
gauges as secondary transducer. Figure
shows one such load cell arrangement.

DYNAMO METERS

Mechanical Dynamometer:
These come under the absorption type. An example for this kind is prony
brake.

In Prony brake, mechanical energy is converted into heat through dry friction
between the wooden brake blocks and the flywheel (pulley) of the machine. One
block carries a lever arm. An arrangement is provided to tighten the rope which is
connected to the arm. Rope is tightened so as to increase ht frictional resistance
between the blocks and the pulley.
If
F Load applied and
Power dissipated
r - Lever arm
N Speed of flywheel (rpm)
Torque T = F.r
The capacity of Prony brake is limited because:
Due to wear of wooden blocks, friction coefficient varies. So, unsuitable for large
powers when used for long periods.
To limit temperature rise, cooling is to be ensured.

D.C. Dynamometer
D.C. dynamometer is usable as an
absorption
as
well
as
transmission
dynamometer. So, it finds its use in I.C.
Engines, steam turbines and pumps. A d.c.
dynamometer is basically a d.c. motor with a
provision to run it as a d.c. generator where
the input mechanical energy, after conversion
to electrical energy, can either be dissipated
through a resistance grid or recovered for use.
When used as an absorption dynamometer it
acts as d.c. generator. (figure) Cradling in
trunnion bearings permits the determination
of reaction torque.

Eddy CURRENT
DYNAMOMETER

Current or Inductor Dynamometers:

This is an example for absorption type dynamometers.

Principle: When a conducting material moves through a magnetic flux
field, voltage is generated, which causes current to flow. If the conductor is
a wire forming a part of a complete circuit will be caused to flow through
that circuit, and with some form of commutating device a form of a.c. or
d.c. generator may result.

An eddy current dynamometer is shown in figure. It consists of a metal disc

or wheel which is rotated in the flux of a magnetic field. The field if
produced by field elements or coils excited by an external source and
attached to the dynamometer housing which is mounted in trunnion
bearings. As the disc turns, eddy currents are generated. Its reaction with
the magnetic field tends to rotate the complete housing in the trunnion
bearings. Water cooling is employed.