Chapter 1

Introduction to Heat Transfer

Chapter 1

Perpindahan Panas/Heat Transfer

Introduction
Thermodynamics:
Energy can be transferred between a system and its
surroundings.
A system interacts with its surroundings by exchanging work
and heat
Deals with equilibrium states
Does not give information about:
Rates at which energy is transferred
Mechanisms through with energy is transferred

In this chapter we will learn:

What is heat transfer
How is heat transferred
Relevance and importance
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Perpindahan Panas/Heat Transfer

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Definitions
Heat transfer or Heat is thermal energy transfer that is
induced by a temperature difference (or gradient)

Modes of heat transfer

Conduction heat transfer : Occurs when a temperature
gradient exists through a solid or a stationary fluid (liquid or
gas).
Convection heat transfer: Occurs within a moving fluid, or
between a solid surface and a moving fluid, when they are
at different temperatures
Thermal radiation: All surfaces at finite temperature emit
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. Heat transfer
between two surfaces (that are not in contact), often in the
absence of an intervening medium.
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Example: Design of a container

A closed container filled with hot coffee is in a room whose air
and walls are at a fixed temperature. Identify all heat transfer
processes that contribute to cooling of the coffee. Comment on
features that would contribute to a superior container design.

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1. Conduction
Transfer of energy from the more energetic to less energetic
particles of a substance by collisions between atoms and/or
molecules.
Atomic and molecular activity random molecular motion (diffusion)

T1

xo

T1>T2

qx

T2

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T2
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1. Conduction
Consider a brick wall, of thickness L=0.3 m which in a cold winter day
is exposed to a constant inside temperature, T1=20C and a constant
outside temperature, T2= -20C.
Under steady-state conditions
the temperature varies linearly
as a function of x.
Wall Area, A
qx
T1=20C
The rate of conductive heat
transfer in the x-direction
depends on

T2= -20C

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L=0.3 m

q"x

Perpindahan Panas/Heat Transfer

T1 T2

1. Conduction

The proportionality constant is a transport property, known as thermal

conductivity k (units W/m.K)

q"x

T1 T2
T
k
k
L
L

For the brick wall, k=0.72 W/m.K (assumed constant), therefore

qx= 96 W/m2

How would this value change if instead of the brick wall we had a
piece of polyurethane insulating foam of the same dimensions?
(k=0.026 W/m.K)

qx is the heat flux (units W/m2 or (J/s)/m2), which is the heat transfer
rate in the x-direction per unit area perpendicular to the direction of
transfer.
The heat rate, qx (units W=J/s) through a plane wall of area A is the
product of the flux and the area: qx= qx. A
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Perpindahan Panas/Heat Transfer

1. Conduction
In the general case the rate of heat transfer in the xdirection is expressed in terms of the Fourier law:

q"x

dT
k
dx

T1 (high)

Minus sign because heat flows

from high to low T
For a linear profile

qx
T2 (low)

x1

x2
x

dT (T2 T1 )

0
dx ( x2 x1 )
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2. Convection
Energy transfer by random molecular motion (as in
conduction) plus bulk (macroscopic) motion of the fluid.
Convection: transport by random motion of molecules and by bulk
motion of fluid.
Advection: transport due solely to bulk fluid motion.
Forced convection: Caused by external means
Natural (free) convection: flow induced by buoyancy forces, arising
from density differences arising from temperature variations in the fluid
The above cases involve sensible heat (internal energy) of the fluid
Latent heat exchange is associated with phase changes
boiling and condensation.
Hydrodynamic or velocity and Thermal boundary layers

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2. Convection
Air at 20C blows over a hot plate, which is maintained at a
temperature Ts=300C and has dimensions of 20x40 cm.

T 20 C

Air
q
TS 300 C
The convective heat flux is proportional to the temperature difference

q"x TS T
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2. Convection
The proportionality constant is the convection heat transfer coefficient,
h (W/m2.K)

q"x h(TS T )

Newtons law of Cooling

For air h=25 W/m2.K, therefore the

heat flux is qx= 7,000 W/m2

How would this value change if instead

of blowing air we had still air (h=5
W/m2.K) or flowing water (h=50 W/m2.K)

The heat rate, is

qx= qx. A = qx. (0.2 x 0.4) = 560 W.

The heat transfer coefficient depends

on surface geometry, nature of the fluid
motion, as well as fluid properties.

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3. Radiation

Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter

Energy is transported by electromagnetic waves (or photons).
Can occur from solid surfaces, liquids and gases.
Does not require presence of a medium

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Emissive Power E is the radiation emitted by the surface

The upper limit of the emissive power Stefan Boltzmann
Emissive Power of Black body
Stefan Boltzmann constant

Emissive power for real surface 0 1

Ts Absolute surface temperature [K]
Irradiation G is the rate of incident radiation per unit area of
the surface originating from its surroundings
A portion or all of G is absorbed by the surface increase
thermal energy
Absorbed irradiation for real surface 0 1
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3. Radiation
4
G Tsur

is the absorptivity 0
For a grey surface, =

Net radiation heat transfer of the surface per unit area

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Thermal Resistance Concept

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Conservation of Energy
Surroundings, S
Control Volume
(CV)
Boundary, B
(Control Surface, CS)

-Accumulation
Addition
through inlet

E in

Energy conservation on a rate basis:

Units W=J/s

E st
-Generation E
(Storage)

Loss
through outlet

E out

E E E dE st E
in
g
out
st
dt

Inflow and outflow are surface phenomena

Generation and accumulation are volumetric phenomena

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V2
i u p
m
g z

q W 0

V2
out u p
m
g z

out

Enthalpy i = u + pv
Ideal gas of constant specific heat (iin-iout) = cp(Tin-Tout)
Simplified Steady-flow thermal energy equation

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Example
In an orbiting space station, an electronic package is housed in a
compartment having a surface area As=1 m2, which is exposed to space.
Under normal operating conditions, the electronics dissipate 1kW, all of
which must be transferred from the exposed surface to space.
(a) If the surface emissivity is 1.0 and the surface is not exposed to the
sun, what is its steady-state temperature?
(b) If the surface is exposed to a solar flux of 750 W/m2 and its absorptivity
to solar radiation is 0.25, what is its steady-state temperature?

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Surface Energy Balance

For a control surface:

T1

qrad

qcond

E in E out 0
or

qconv

"
"
"
qcond
qconv
qrad
0

T2

x
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Example
The roof of a car in a parking lot absorbs a solar radiant flux of 800
W/m2, while the underside is perfectly insulated. The convection
coefficient between the roof and the ambient air is 12 W/m2.K.
a) Neglecting radiation exchange with the surroundings, calculate the
temperature of the roof under steady-state conditions, if the ambient
air temperature is 20C.
b) For the same ambient air temperature, calculate the temperature of
the roof if its surface emissivity is 0.8

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Satellites and space-crafts are exposed to extremely high radiant energy

from the sun. Propose a method to dissipate the heat, so that the surface
temperature of a spacecraft in orbit can be maintained to 300 K .

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Thank you for your kind attention and participation

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