Evidence-Based Practice:

Applying Decision-Theory to
Facilitate Individuals
Career Choices
Itamar Gati
The Hebrew University Jerusalem

Choosing a Career as a DecisionMaking Process: Unique Features

Amount of Information:

Often large N of alternatives

Large N of considerations and factors
Within-occupation variance
Practically unlimited

Quality of Information

Soft, subjective
Fuzzy
Inaccurate or biased

Unique Features of Career

Decisions (continued)
Uncertainty

about the individuals future preferences

about future career options
unpredictable changes and opportunities
the implementation of the choice

Non-cognitive Factors

emotional and personality-related factors

necessity for compromise
actual or perceived social barriers and biases

CDM Difficulties of 15,000 surfers

on the Future Directions website

(Gati & Meyers, 2003)

Are you experiencing difficulties in making

your career decision?

Implications and Conclusion

Many factors contribute to the complexity and

difficulties involved in the career decisionmaking process

Career counseling may be viewed as decision
counseling, which aims at facilitating the
clients' decision-making process, and promoting
better career decisions
By adopting decision theory and adapting it to
the unique features of career decisions,
theoretical knowledge can be translated into
practical interventions to facilitate individuals
career choices
5

How can Theoretical Knowledge and

Empirical Methods be used for
Developing Counseling Instruments?

Todays Presentation
The three bases of career counseling:
Locating the focuses of the clients
decision-making difficulties (CDDQ)
Guidance in the decision-making process
The three-stage model (PIC)
Identifying the clients stage in the
process
Characterizing the clients decision-making
style (DS)

Career Decision-Making
Difficulties
The first step in helping individuals is to locate

the focuses of the difficulties they face in

making career decisions
Gati, Krausz, and Osipow (1996) proposed a
taxonomy for describing the difficulties (see
Figure 1), based on:

the stage in the decision-making process during

which the difficulties typically arise
the similarity between the sources of the
difficulties
the effects that the difficulties may have on
the process and the relevant type of
intervention

Figure 1: Locating Career Decision-making

Difficulties based on the taxonomy of Gati, Krausz,
& Osipow (1996)
During the Process

Prior to Engaging
in the Process
Lack of Readiness
due to

Lack of
Indecimotivation siveness
8

Lack of Information
about

Dysfunc- Cdm Self Occutional process

pations
beliefs

Ways of
obtaining
info.

Inconsistent
Information due to

Unreliable Internal
Info.
conflicts

External
conflicts

The Career Decision-making

Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ)
The Career Decision-making Difficulties

Questionnaire (CDDQ) was developed to test

this taxonomy and serve as a means for
assessing individuals career decision-making
difficulties
Cronbach Alpha internal consistency
estimates: .70-.90 for the 3 major
categories, .95 for the total CDDQ score

10

Empirical Structure of the

Difficulties (N= 10,000; 2004)

Lack of motivations

Indecisiveness
Dysfunctional beliefs
Lack of info about self
Lack of info about process
LoI about occupations
LoI about addition sources of
help
Unreliable Information
Internal conflicts
External conflicts

11

Computerized Assessment of
Career Decision-Making Difficulties
The CDDQ was incorporated into a career-

related self-help-oriented free of charge

Internet site (www.cddq.org).

Research has shown that the Internet and the

paper-and-pencil versions of the CDDQ are

equivalent (Gati & Saka, 2001; Kleiman & Gati,
2004).
The CDDQ was found suitable for different
countries and cultures and has been translated
into 18 languages.
12

Interpreting the CDDQ results

Measuring career decision-making difficulties is

not enough interpretation is very important

Interpretation is part of face-to-face counseling

and is crucial for Internet-based assessment of

career decision-making difficulties, where no
expert counselor is available

The proposed interpretation procedure is aimed

13

at locating the individuals salient difficulties and

recommending ways to deal with them (with added
reservations when needed)

The Four Stages of Interpretation

1.

Ascertaining Credibility, using validity items and the

2.

Estimating Differentiation

3.

Locating the Salient, moderate, or negligible

difficulties, based on the individual's absolute and relative

time required to fill out the questionnaire

based on the standard

deviation of the 10 difficulty-scale scores

scale scores

4.
14

Determining the need to add reservations to

the feedback provided (based on doubtful credibility, partial
differentiation, or low informativeness)

The 4 Stages of Interpretation

1

Doubtful

Credible

Estimating
Differentiation

Questionable

3
Aggregate
Reasons to Add
Reservation (RAR)

B/W < 1

RAR = 3
RAR 2

4
15

Add Reservation
to Feedback

Not Credible

Evaluating
Credibility

Low

High

Locate Salient
Difficulties
Compute
Informativeness
(B /W )
B/W > 1

Receives
Feedback

No
Feedback

Interpreting the CDDQ results

The goal: empirically testing a four-stage

model for interpreting the CDDQ profiles of

individuals
The interpretation is based on the withinclient relative salience of the difficulties as
well as their absolute salience, augmented by
quality-assurance measures
Career counselors' expert judgments were
used to validate the proposed procedures of
analyses
16

5 Studies
Study 1: Ascertaining the Credibility of

Responses to the CDDQ, based on validity

items
Study 2: Estimating the Differentiation of
Responses, based on the SDs of the 10 scale
scores
Study 3: Determining the Relative Salience of
Difficulties (salient, moderate, negligible)
Study 4: Determining the Need to Add
Reservations to the Feedback
17

Studies 1-4
Career counselors' expert judgments were used in

18

the four studies for validating the proposed

procedures
Method
Participants: career counselors and graduate
counseling students
Questionnaires: in studies 1,4 - all possible cases;
in studies 2,3 - responses of 16 actual clients
Results:
High similarity between experts and students
judgments, as well as within-groups judgments
High similarity between the experts judgments
and the proposed algorithm at each stage

Study 5 Testing the Applicability of

the Proposed Model
Method: Analyzing the CDDQ data of four groups (N =
6,192)
Hebrew paper-and-pencil version 965 university

students

Hebrew Internet version - 4030 individuals surfing

the Future Directions Internet site (www.kivunim.com)

English paper-and-pencil version - 452 US College

students

English Internet version - 745 individuals who filled

out the CDDQ on the Internet ( www.cddq.org )

19

Results: see Figures 3 & 4

Figure 3: The Distribution of the Three Levels of

Difficulties (negligible, moderate, salient difficulty)

in the Ten Difficulty Categories and in Four Groups

(N = 6192; H-Hebrew, E-English, p-paper and pencil, I-Internet)

20

Difficulty category

Figure 4: Distribution of types of

feedback in the four groups

21

Conclusions
The incorporation of a middle level of

discrimination increases the usefulness of the

feedback and decreases the chances and
implications of potential errors

Adding reservations when appropriate is

essential for providing meaningful feedback

and decreasing the chances of misleading
conclusions

22

General Feedback on the CDDQ

23

Detailed Feedback on the CDDQ

24

25

26

Among the salient difficulties is

lack of information about
the
career
decision-making
process
(4)
The Distribution of the Three Levels of Difficulties (negligible, moderate,
salient difficulty) in the Ten Difficulty Categories and the Four Groups
(N = 6192; H-Hebrew, E-English, p-paper and pencil, I-Internet)

27

Guidance in the decision-making

process
The PIC model (Gati & Asher, 2001)
which separates the career decisionmaking process into 3 distinct stages:

- Prescreening
- In-depth exploration
28

- Choice

Prescreening
Goal: Locating a small set (about 7) of promising

alternatives that deserve further, in-depth

exploration

Method: Sequential Elimination

Locate and prioritize aspects or factors

Explicate within-aspect preferences
Eliminate incompatible alternatives
Check list of promising alternatives

Outcome: A list of verified promising alternatives

29

worth further, in-depth exploration

Steps in Sequential Elimination

Locating and prioritizing aspects or factors
Explicate within-factor preferences in the most
important factor not yet considered
Eliminate incompatible alternatives
Too many promising alternatives?
no
This is the recommended list of occupations
worth further, in-depth exploration
30

yes

A Schematic Presentation of the

Sequential Elimination Process
(within aspects, across alternatives)
Potential Alternatives
Aspects
a
b

(most
important)
(second in
importance)

c
.
n
31

Promising
Alternatives

In-depth exploration
Goal: Locating alternatives that are not only promising

but indeed suitable for the individual.

Method: collecting additional information, focusing on
one promising occupation at a time:

32

Is the occupation INDEED suitable for me?

verifying compatibility with ones preferences in the
most important aspects
considering compatibility within the less important
aspects
Am I suitable for the occupation?
probability of actualization: previous studies, grades,
achievements
fit with the core aspects of the occupation

Outcome: A few most suitable alternatives (about 3-4)

Choice
Goal: Choosing the most suitable alternative, and rank-

ordering additional, second-best alternatives

Method:

comparing and evaluating the suitable alternatives

pinpointing the most suitable one
Am I likely to activate it?
if not - selecting second-best alternative(s)
if yes - Am I confident in my choice?
if not: Return to In-depth exploration stage
if yes: Done!

Outcome: The best alternative or a rank-order of the

best alternatives

33

Still
Career decision-making requires collecting a vast

amount of information
Complex information-processing is needed

But luckily,

information and communication

technologies are available

The use of a computer-assisted career guidance

system based on a theoretical model can help

overcome human cognitive limitations
There are several computer-assisted career guidance
systems available, most of them on the Internet
34

However,
although Internet-based, career-related selfhelp sites are flourishing,
these sites, as well as stand-alone computerassisted career-guidance systems, vary greatly
in quality.
Hence,
it is very important to investigate the utility
and validity of these self-help programs.
35

Stand-Alone, Internet-Based
Career-Planning Systems
Desirable Features

Possible Solutions

Assessment of needs

CDDQ

Providing guidance
concerning the process

Steps (PIC), factors

to consider, dealing
with compromises and
uncertainty
potential alternatives,
their characteristics,
training

Providing relevant and

accurate information
36

Stand-Alone Internet-Based
Career-Planning Systems (continued)
Desirable Features
Monitoring the dialogue

37

Guiding the user toward

additional sources of
information
Directing the user to
face-to-face counseling
when needed

Possible Solutions

Users inputcontinuous feedback,

outcome
sensitivity analysis
on the Internet or
elsewhere
informative summary
of the dialogue

MBCD
Making Better Career Decisions
MBCD is an Internet-based career planning
system that is a unique combination of
a career-information system
a decision-making support system
an expert system
Based on the rationale of the PIC model,
MBCD is designed to help deliberating
individuals make better career decisions
38

MBCD Goals
Advancing the users career decision-making by

locating a small set of promising occupational

alternatives on which s/he may focus and
collect more detailed information.

Increasing the users readiness and motivation

to make a career decision.

Presenting a practical model of career

39

decision-making that can be implemented in

future career decisions as well as other
decisions.

MBCD
Systems Features
Prescreening

Promising alternatives are located using the

Sequential-Elimination model (Gati, 1986),
which takes into consideration those career
aspects that are most important to the
counselee.
MBCD includes 28 career factors

40

41

MBCDs Key Features (cont.)

42

Eliciting both facets of the individuals

preferences:
(a) the optimal level
(b) additional levels that the user regards as
acceptable (reflecting the users willingness
to compromise)

43

44

MBCDs Key Features (cont.)

Each occupation is characterized by a range of

levels within each aspect, reflecting the

within-occupation variance.

The system provides detailed feedback and

recommendations according to the users input

and its effect on the search results.

The dialogue is flexible and the users can

45

change their responses at any point.

46

47

MBCDs Key Features (cont.)

Promising alternatives are located by the

Sequential-Elimination search
model (Gati, 1986).

But the user can also use a compensatory-

model-based search.

48

Compensatory model-based search

Goal locating the most compatible occupations

Rationale - advantages of occupations may

compensate for their disadvantages

Steps of the compensatory search

Locate gaps between preferences and the
characteristics of the occupation for each factor
Sum the gaps, weighted by importance of factors
Locate occupations with minimal sum of gaps

49

The Conjunction of the Two Lists

Sequential
elimination-based
list

Conjunction
list

Compensationbased list

Users are advised to focus on the occupations that were included

in the recommended list of both search models in the in-depth
exploration

50

51

MBCDs Key Features (cont.)

Options to check the quality of the list of
promising occupations, including:
Almost compatible occupations
(i.e., sensitivity analysis)
Why not
What if
Similar occupations
Compare Occupations

52

53

MBCDs Features (cont.)

Initial in-depth explorations is offered

by detailed occupational descriptions

54

55

MBCDs Features (cont.)

At the end of the dialogue
the user receives a printed summary to take

along for further processing of the

information. The printout also provides
information for the counselor.

The users preferences are saved under a

personalized code for future interactions.

56

Making
Better
Career
Decisions
Does it really work?
57

END of PART 1

58

Making
Better
Career
Decisions
Does it really work?
59

Prescreening Based on Elimination:

Descriptive Validity (Gati &

Tikotzki,1989)

The monitored dialogues of 384 career

counselees with a computer-assisted career

information system were analyzed.

Results: most users (96%) employed a non-

compensatory strategy during all or at least a

part of the dialogue: many options considered at
a previous stage of the dialogue were not
considered at the following stage, showing that
individuals tend to use a prescreening strategy
based on eliminating alternatives

60

Criteria for Testing the Benefits of

Making Better Career Decisions

Examine users' perceptions of MBCD
Examine changes in users degree of

decidedness

Examine perceived benefits

Locate factors that contribute to these

variables

61

METHOD
Participants
247 males and 465 females who filled out

both a pre-dialogue and a post-dialogue

questionnaire
Mean age 22.8; mean years of education 12.6

62

4% high-school students
6% recent graduates from high school
58% recently completed their military service
9% considering an alternative to their current major
3% college graduates deliberating a job choice
8% considering a career transition
12% "other"

Mean Perceived Benefit (MPB) and Willingness to Recommend

(WR) the Use of MBCD to a Friend (%) as a Function of the
Difference in Decidedness after the Dialogue of MBCD
(N=712)

Decidedness
No change

Decreased

355
(50%)

266
(37%)

91
(13%)

MPB

3.12

2.57

2.52

WR%

93.5

74.8

72.5

Measure

Frequency

63

Increased

Frequencies of Degree of Decidedness

Before and after the Dialogue with MBCD

Decidedness
After the Dialogue

Decidedness Before the Dialogue

1

1- no direction

34

2 - only a general
direction

41

66

15

3 - Client is considering a
few specific alternatives

27

58

84

30

4 - would like to examine

additional alternatives

23

51

35

54

5 - would like to collect

information about a
specific occupation
6 - sure which
occupation to choose

20

21

41

28

16

Willingness to Recommend (WR) the Use of MBCD to a friend as a Function

of the Degree of Decidedness Before and After the Dialogue with MBCD
(N=712)

Decidedness
After the Dialogue
with MBCD

Decidedness Before the

Dialogue with MBCD
1

1- no direction

38

14

17

29

--

2 - only a general direction

85

73

67

67

100

3 - considering a few
specific alternatives
4 - client would like to examine
additional alternatives
5 - would like to collect information
about a specific occupation

100

93

82

97

100

100

92

100

82

100

100

85

90

98

89

6 - Client is sure which

occupation to choose

100

--

100

100

81

MBCDs Effect on Reducing

Career Decision-Making Difficulties (d, Cohen, 1992)
Scale
Lack of Readiness

d
.31

Motivation

.13

General indecisiveness

.29

Dysfunctional Beliefs

.16

Lack of Information About

.72

The Process

.48

The Self

.45

Occupational Alternatives

.78

Additional Sources

.20

Inconsistent Information

.11

Unreliable Information

.18

Internal Conflicts

.01

External Conflicts

-.13

Total CDDQ

.65

MBCDs Effect (d, Cohen, 1992) on Reducing

Career Decision-Making Difficulties
(Gati, Saka, & Krausz, 2003)

67

Perceived Suitability of the "Promising Alternatives" List

(N=693)

100%
90%

too long

80%
70%
60%

suitable

50%
40%
30%

too short

20%
10%
0%
2
(n=23)

3-4
(n=74)

5
6
7
(n=71) (n=121) (n=236)

8-10
(n=45)

11-15
(n=40)

Number of Alternatives (n - of users)

68

16-25
(n=46)

26+
(n=37)

Predictive Validity of MBCD

Design: Comparing the Occupational Choice

Satisfaction (OCS) of two groups:

69

those whose present occupation was

included in MBCDs recommended list

those whose present occupation was not

included in MBCDs recommended list

Method
Participants

70

The original sample included 123 clients who

used MBCD in 1997, as part of their
counseling at the Hadassah CareerCounseling Institute

Out of the 73 that were located after six+

years, 70 agreed to participate in the
follow-up:
44 women (64%) and 26 men (36%),
aged 23 to 51 (mean = 28.4, SD = 5.03)

Method
Instruments

Questionnaire: clients were asked to report

their field of studies, their satisfaction
with their present occupational choice (scale
of 1 9): low (1-4), moderate (5-7),
high (8-9)
Procedure
the located clients were interviewed by
phone, six+ years after visiting the careercounseling center

71

MBCD

Results

Frequencies of Occupational Choice Satisfaction

by Acceptance and Rejection of MBCD's Recommendations,
Based on Sequential Elimination

72

Frequencies of Occupational Choice

Satisfaction by the Search-Model Whose
Recommendations Were Accepted

73

Conclusions
Accepting the recommendations of the

sequential-elimination-based search of MBCD

produces the best outcomes (i.e., highest
levels of satisfactions with the occupation)

The data does not support the effectiveness

of the compensatory-based search

The data does not support any advantage of

74

using the conjunction list over using only the

sequential-elimination-search list

Alternative Explanations
Differences in the lengths of the lists
No difference was found in the OCS between clients

whose list included 15 or fewer occupations and clients

whose list included more than 15 occupations.

Therefore, this explanation can be ruled out.

75

Alternative Explanations
(cont.)
Clients who accepted MBCDs
recommendations are more compliant, and
therefore more inclined to report a high
level of satisfaction.
However, following the compensatory-model-based

recommendations did not contribute to the OCS.

Therefore, this explanation can be ruled out too.

76

Gender Differences in Directly and Indirectly

Elicited Career-Related Preferences
Gadassi and Gati 2006

Method
Participants. 226 females (74.1%) and 79

males (25.9%) who entered the Future

Directions Internet site
Age: 17-30, mean=22.84 (median = 22, SD =
3.34)
Years of education: mean=12.67 (median 12,
SD = 1.48)

77

Instruments

Future Directions (http://www.kivunim.com

)

Making Better Career Decisions (MBCD,

The preference questionnaire: this

http://mbcd.intocareers.org)

questionnaire imitated the preference

elicitation in MBCD. Participants were
presented with 31 aspects, and were asked to
rank-order them according to importance, and
to report their preferences in all 31 aspects
78

Preliminary analysis
Lists of occupations. We used MBCD to generate

three lists of occupations according to:

(1) sequential-elimination
(2) compensation, and, for 235 participants,
(3) the list based on the conjunction between the
sequential elimination and the compensatory search
lists.
79

Preliminary analysis

Lists of occupations. We used MBCD to

generate three lists of occupations according
to:
1.
2.
3.

80

sequential-elimination
compensation
and, for 235 participants,
the list based on the conjunction
between the sequential elimination and the
compensatory search lists

Preliminary analysis
Determining the degree of gender-ratings of

occupations was based on the judgments of 10

undergraduate students.
1 most (that is, over 80%) of the individuals who
work in this occupation are women

5 most (that is, over 80%) of the individuals

who work in this occupation are men over 80%"
The inter-judge reliability was .96,
We computed the mean gender-ratings of the lists
of occupations for each participants

81

Preliminary analysis

Lists of occupations. We used MBCD to

generate three lists of occupations according
to:
1.
2.
3.

82

sequential-elimination
compensation
and, for 235 participants,
the list based on the conjunction
between the sequential elimination and the
compensatory search lists

Gender Differences in Directly and Indirectly Elicited

Preferred Occupations (Gadassi & Gati, 2007)

83

Summary of Major Findings

PIC is compatible with peoples intuitive ways of

making decisions (Gati & Tikotzki, 1989)

Most users reported progress in the career
decision-making process (Gati, Kleiman, Saka, & Zakai,
2003)

Satisfaction was also reported among those who did

not progress in the process
Users are goal-directed the closer they are to
making a decision, the more satisfied they are with
MBCD

The list of Recommended Occupations are not sex-

type biased (Gadassi & Gati, 2006)

84

Identifying the Clients Stage

is possible
to start the PIC process from
inItthe
Process

the middle according to the clients needs

However, it is recommended to start the
process from the beginning, in order to:

Strengthen confidence in the occupational

alternatives considered by the client
Eliminate inadequate alternatives considered by
the client
Offer additional alternatives that were not
considered by the client so far
Teach decisions skills: aspect-based instead of
occupation-based approach

85

The stage in the PIC model decisionprocess of pre-academic programs students,

at the beginning and end of the program
The stage in the decision-making process beginning of programs
(N=386
)
The stage in the dcm process end
of programs

total

1-before pre-screening

1
3

1 13

2-before in-depths exploration

11

44

17

5 77

3- before choice

12

45

29

4 after choice

85

50

60 203

181

98

73 386

Total - over rows

34

(55%) 211 made progress in the process

(35%) 136 stayed in the same stage
86

(10%) 39

moved backwards

93

Tailoring the Intervention to the

Clients
There is anDecision-Making
advantage in tailoring the counseling
Style

intervention to the clients decision-making style

Previous research typically characterized individuals
by the most dominant characteristic of their decisionmaking style (e.g., intuitive, dependent).
we suggest that a multidimensional analysis should be
used to uncover a comprehensive decision-making
style-profile of clients.
A theoretical framework based on ten dimensions
related to the career decision-making process was
developed for characterizing individuals' careerdecision making styles
87

The Ten Dimensions

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
88

The degree of analytic vs. holistic informationprocessing

The level of effort invested in the process
The degree of comprehensiveness in gathering and
integrating the information
The degree of consultation with others
The degree of realism (willingness to compromise)
Internal vs. external locus of control
The speed of making the final decision
The degree of procrastination
The degree of dependence on others
The degree of acceptance to others wills

Testing the Proposed Model

To empirically test the proposed taxonomy we

developed the career Decision-making Style

Questionnaire (DSQ), in which each of the
proposed dimensions was represented by a few
statements.
The questionnaire was uploaded to a careerrelated, self-help oriented Internet site (
www.kivunim.com )
A cluster analysis supported the proposed

differentiation between all ten dimensions.

89

90

91

Locating Repeated Profiles of

Decision-Making Styles
Based on a cluster analysis of the participants,

we located homogeneous groups of participants

with similar career decision-making style
profiles

We found five groups of participants with

similar decision-making styles

These results were discussed in terms of the

92

hypothesized ten dimensions and the

previously identified career decision-making
styles

The Means of the Located Groups in Terms of the 10

Dimensions Red = Low; Green = High
Group
Dimension

Analytic

4.5

3.4

4.4

2.3

2.4

Effort

4.6

3.9

4.2

3.3

2.2

Comprehens.

4.6

3.4

4.2

3.5

2.4

Consulting

4.5

2.3

4.4

3.1

3.3

Realistic

3.6

3.2

2.7

4.0

3.7

Locus of

2.9

4.1

4.6

1.9

2.6

Speed

2.6

3.9

3.7

3.1

3.7

Procrastin

3.2

4.1

3.9

3.4

2.9

Dependence

3.9

4.9

4.4

3.1

4.1

Acceptance

4.1

4.6

3.6

2.0

4.2

General Average of the Located Groups

94

Group

Sd

2.91

0.43

3.17

0.50

3.82

0.48

3.87

0.36

4.03

0.23

To sum up, I presented and

discussed:
The CDDQ for locating the focuses of the

individuals decision-making difficulties, and the

design and testing of a systematic procedure for
interpreting its results

A general framework for cdm the PIC model

MBCD a unique combination of career

information, expert, and a decision-support system

DSQ A taxonomy and a questionnaire for a

multidimensional analysis of clients decision-making

styles

95

To sum up
Career choices are decision-making processes,

96

therefore career counseling is also decision

counseling
Decision theory can be translated into
practical interventions aimed at facilitating
individuals career decision-making
Many tools were transformed into userfriendly Internet-based systems, which can be
incorporated into counseling interventions
The theory-based interventions can and should
be empirically tested for theoretical validity
as well as practical effectiveness

97

END
Sofsof

98

:Figure 2

non
credible

Ascertaining
Credibility
doubtful

credible

Estimating
Differentiation
partial

low

high

Locate Salient
Difficulty Categories

Aggregate
Reasons to Add
Reservation (RAR)

RAR = 3

B/W < 1
Compute
Informativeness
(Bv/Wv)

RAR 2

Add Reservation
to Feedback

99

B/W > 1

Receives
Feedback

No Feedback

Results:

Compared Means of the Femininity-Masculinity Score

According to Type of List and Gender

10

The Empirical Structure of the

10 Dimensions

10