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Prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
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Cells
Cells :structural and functional units of all living
organisms
unicellular, consisting of a single cell and
multicellular, (an estimated 1013 cells in humans!)
Each cell can take in nutrients, convert these
nutrients into energy, carry out specialized
functions, and reproduce as necessary.
Each cell stores its own set of instructions for
carrying out each of these activities.
There are two general categories of cells:
prokaryotes and eukaryotes
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Life on Earth
.
Cellular components
.
The cell
.
The cell
.
The Nucleus
.
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Nucleoproteins
.
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Chromosomes
.
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Endoplasmic reticulum(ER)
.
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RE
.
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Endoplasmic reticulum(ER)
Is a vast membrane structure.
The ER membrane is a continuation of the outer nuclear
membrane
When viewed by electron microscopy, some areas of the
endoplasmic reticulum look "smooth" (smooth ER) and some
appear "rough" (rough ER). The rough ER appears rough due
to the presence of ribosomes on the membrane surface.
Smooth ER is important in the synthesis of lipids and
membrane proteins. Rough ER is important in the synthesis of
other proteins.
Information coded in DNA sequences in the nucleus is
transcribed as messenger RNA. Messenger RNA exits the
nucleus through small pores to enter the cytoplasm. At the
ribosomes on the rough ER, the messenger RNA is translated
into proteins.
These proteins are then transferred to the Golgi in "transport
vesicles" where they are further processed and packaged into
lysosomes, peroxisomes, or secretory vesicles.
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The Golgi
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Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus is a membrane-bound
structure with a single membrane.
It is actually a stack of membrane-bound
vesicles that are important in packaging
macromolecules for transport elsewhere in the
cell.
The stack of larger vesicles is surrounded by
numerous smaller vesicles containing those
packaged macromolecules.
The enzymatic or hormonal contents of
lysosomes, peroxisomes and secretory vesicles
are packaged in membrane-bound vesicles at
the periphery of the Golgi apparatus.
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Mitochondria
An eukaryotic cell contains many mitochondria,
occupying up to a quarter of the cytoplasmic volume.
The size of a mitochondrion is about 1.5-2 mm in
length, 0.5-1 mm in diameter.
It has two membranes: outer membrane and inner
membrane. Mitochondria also have their own DNA
( mtDNA), which encodes some of the proteins and
RNAs in mitochondria.
However, most proteins operating in mitochondria still
originate from nuclear DNA.
The major role of mitochondria is to produce ATP
In animal cells, the major sources for the synthesis of
ATP are fatty acids and glucose.
The generation of ATP involves a series of electron
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transport in the mitochondria
Mitochondrion
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Mitochondrial compartments
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Mitochondria
Mitochondria provides energy to the cell. They
are the power centers of the cell.
They are about the size of bacteria but may have
different shapes depending on the cell type.
Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles,
and like the nucleus have a double membrane.
The outer membrane is fairly smooth. But the
inner membrane is highly convoluted, forming
folds called cristae.
The cristae greatly increase the inner
membrane's surface area.
It is on these cristae that NADH and FADH2 from
food oxidation is combined with oxygen to
produce ATP
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Prokaryotic Ribosome(70S)
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Composition of Ribosomes
.
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Lysosomes:
i. Lysosomes (common in animal cells but rare in plant cells)
contain hydrolytic enzymes necessary for intracellular digestion.
ii. In white blood cells that engulf bacteria, lysosome contents are
carefully released into the vacuole around the bacteria and serve
to kill and digest those bacteria.
iii. Uncontrolled release of lysosome contents into the cytoplasm can
also cause cell death .
Peroxisomes:
i. This organelle is responsible for protecting the cell from its own
production of toxic hydrogen peroxide.
ii. As an example, white blood cells produce hydrogen peroxide to
kill bacteria. The oxidative enzymes in peroxisomes break down
the hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
Secretory Vesicles:
i. Cell secretions - e.g. hormones, neurotransmitters - are packaged
in secretory vesicles at the Golgi apparatus.
ii. The secretory vesicles are then transported to the cell surface for
release.
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Compartmentation
Oxidative phosphorylation
.
electron transport
Processing of information
Sensory stimuli
Nerve impulses
Hormonal actions
Cell-cell recognition
. immunological
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General composition.
The components
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Phosphatidyl choline
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Phosphatidylcholine
.
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Amphipathic molecules.
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Lipid Bilayer
Amphipathic lipids in association with
water form complexes in which their polar
regions are in contact with water and their
hydrophobic regions are away from water.
Various micelle structures. E.g., the
spherical micelle is a stable configuration
for amphipathic lipids that have a conical
shape, such as fatty acids.
A bilayer. This is the most stable
configuration for amphipathic lipids with a
cylindrical shape, such as phospholipids.
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Phosphatidylcholine
.
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Membrane fluidity
Membrane fluidity
Membrane Fluidity
Cholesterol is abundant in membranes,
such as plasma membranes, that include
many lipids with long-chain saturated
fatty acids. In the absence of cholesterol,
such membranes would crystallize at
physiological temperatures.
The inner mitochondrial membrane lacks
cholesterol, but includes many
phospholipids whose fatty acids have one
or more double bonds, which lower the
melting point to below physiological
temperature.
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Lipid bilayer
.
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Lipid Bilayer
.
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Lipid bilayer
.
Color scheme: PO4 = green, N(CH3)3 = violet, water = blue, terminal CH3
= yellow,
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O = red, glycol C = brown, chain C = grey
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Membrane-spanning -helix
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Membrane structure
.
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Plasma membrane
.
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Blood-group antigens
The antigens which determine blood types belong to
glycoproteins and glycolipids.
There are three types of ABO blood-group antigens: O,
A, and B. They differ only slightly in the composition of
carbohydrates.
All humans contain enzymes which catalyze the
synthesis of the O antigen.
Humans with A-type blood also contain an additional
enzyme (called A-type enzyme here) which adds NAcetylgalactosamine to the O antigen.
Humans with B-type blood contain another enzyme
(called B-type enzyme ) which adds Galactose to the O
antigen.
Humans with AB-type blood contain both A-type and
B-type enzymes while humans with O-type blood lack
both types of enzymes.
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Transmembrane proteins
(1) single-pass
(2) multiple-pass
Trans-membrane proteins have membrane
spanning portions containing alpha
helically arranged sequences of 20-25
hydrophobic amino acids.
Short strings of hydrophilic amino acids
separate the hydrophobic sequences from
each other:
These hydrophilic stretches tend to be
found exposed to the more aqueous
environments associated with the
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cytoplasm or the extra cellular space.
Aliphatic side-chains
.
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Lipid anchor
Lipid anchor: Some proteins bind to membranes via a
covalently attached lipid anchor, that inserts into the
bilayer
The attached lipid may be a fatty acid such as
palmitate or myristate.
Palmitate is usually attached via an ester linkage to
the thiol of a cysteine residue. A protein may be
released from the plasma membrane to the cytosol via
depalmitoylation, hydrolysis of the ester linkage.
An isoprenoid, such as a farnesyl residue, is attached
to some proteins via a thioether linkage to a cysteine
thiol.
Fatty acid or isoprenoid chains link proteins to the
cytosolic surface of the plasma membrane
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Lipid anchors
.
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Membrane structure
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Protein channels
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transport).
A carrier must be able to :
The characteristics:.
Faster than simple diffusion
Movement is down the concentration gradient only
No energy input is required.
The carrier exhibits specificity, saturation kinetics ,specific
inhibitability
Examples :
Glucose transport in many cells.
A uniport system
Adding a substance analogous to glucose can inhibit glucose
transport specifically.
It is specific for glucose. The Km for glucose is 6.2 mM
Involves attachment of glucose outside the cell.
Conformational change of the carrier protein. Release of the
glucose inside the cell.
Chloride-bicarbonate transport in the erythrocyte membrane.
An antiport system: both ions must move in opposite
directions simultaneously.
The system is reversible, and can work in either direction.
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Movement is driven by the concentration gradient
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i.
ii.
Membrane receptors
Signaling
.
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Second messengers.
Adenyl cyclase is controlled by Gs and Gi.
The action of the G-proteins.
Structure: G-proteins are complexes of three different subunits,
alpha, beta and gamma. Mechanism: Receptor-messenger
interaction stimulates binding of GTP to the alpha-subunits. The
alpha-subunit with its bound GTP then dissociates from the
beta-gamma complex. The alpha-subunit with its bound GTP
then acts on adenyl cyclase. alphas-GTP stimulates adenyl
cyclase. alphai-GTP inhibits adenyl cyclase.
Termination of the signal occurs at several levels.
The alpha-subunit of the G-protein has GTPase activity. cAMP
already formed is cleaved by cAMP phosphodiesterase.
The hormone gradually and spontaneously dissociates from the
receptor.
cAMP is degraded by cAMP phosphodiesterase.
cAMP + H2O -> AMP
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Cholera toxin
Cholera toxin catalyzes covalent modification of
Gs. ADP-ribose is transferred from NAD+ to an
arginine residue at the GTPase active site of
Gs. This ADP-ribosylation prevents Gs from
hydrolyzing GTP. Thus Gs becomes
permanently activated.
Pertussis toxin (whooping cough disease)
catalyzes ADP-ribosylation at a cysteine residue
of Gi, making the inhibitory G incapable of
exchanging GDP for GTP. Thus the inhibitory
pathway is blocked.
ADP-ribosylation is a general mechanism by
which activity of many proteins is regulated, in
eukaryotes (including mammals) as well as in
prokaryotes.
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G6PD
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G6PD
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NADP+
NADPH
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