Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
5.4: = 2
BERNOULLIS EQUATION
2
2
2
1
V
V
p2
p1
2
2
2
V
p
Constant along a streamline
2
One of most fundamental and useful equations in aerospace engineering!
Remember:
Bernoullis equation holds only for inviscid (frictionless) and
incompressible (= constant) flows
Bernoullis equation relates properties between different points along a
streamline
For a compressible flow Eulers equation must be used ( is variable)
Both Eulers and Bernoullis equations are expressions of F = ma
expressed in a useful form for fluid flows and aerodynamics
13
14
MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
1
2
p V1 p0
2
Static
pressure
Dynamic
pressure
Total
pressure
2 p0 p
V1
Incompressible Flow
16
p
Instrument is called a Pitotstatic probe
p0
18
MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
1
2
p V1 p0
2
Static
pressure
Dynamic
pressure
1
V12 p0
2
Total
pressure
2 p0 p
V1
Incompressible Flow
19
Vtrue
2 p0 p
2 p0 p
Ve
s
20
Lift due to imbalance of pressure distribution over top and bottom surfaces of
airfoil (or wing)
If pressure on top is lower than pressure on bottom surface, lift is generated
Why is pressure lower on top surface?
Lift Force = PA
A
B
1
V 2 constant
2
dp VdV
p
3. With lower pressure over upper surface and higher pressure over bottom surface,
airfoil feels a net force in upward direction Lift
Most of lift is produced
in first 20-30% of wing
(just downstream of leading edge)
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/wrong1.html
A1V1 A2V2
continuity
1
1
2
p1 V1 p2 V22
2
2
Bernoulli
Surroundings
e (J/kg)
THOUGHT EXPERIMENT #1
How does e (internal energy per unit mass) inside the balloon change?
THOUGHT EXPERIMENT #2
How does e (internal energy per unit mass) inside the balloon change?
Where did this increased energy come from?
SYSTEM
(unit mass of gas)
SURROUNDINGS
q
de q w
W force distance
W pdA s
w psdA p sdA
A
w pdv
de q w
de q pdv
Change in
Volume (-)
h e pv e RT
Differentiate
dh de pdv vdp
q de pdv
q de dh de vdp
q dh vdp
q
d
q
J
c
kg K
dT
Specific heat is heat added per unit change in temperature of system
Different materials have different specific heats
Balloon filled with He, N2, Ar, water, lead, uranium, etc
ALSO, for a fixed dq, resulting dT depends on type of process
q
d
q
J
c
kg K
dT
q
cp
dT
q c p dT
dh c p dT
h c pT
constant pressure
q
d
q
J
c
kg K
dT
q
cv
dT
q cv dT
de cv dT
e cvT
constant volume
q
J
c
kg K
dT
However, for a fixed dq, resulting dT depends on type of process:
Constant Pressure
q
cp
dT
q c p dT
dh c p dT
h c pT
constant pressure
Constant Volume
q
cv
dT
q cv dT
de cv dT
e cvT
cp
cv
p2 2
p1 1
T2
T1
= cp/cv
air=1.4
de q w
q 0
q dh vdp 0
dp VdV
Integrate
Result: frictionless + adiabatic flow
dh vVdV 0
dh VdV 0
h2
h1
V2
dh VdV 0
V1
V22 V12
h2 h1
0
2
2
2
2
V
V
h1
h2
2
2
2
V
h
constant
2
V12
V22
c pT1
c pT2
2
2
2
V
c pT
constant
2
Compressible, isentropic
(adiabatic and frictionless)
flow along a streamline or in a
stream tube of varying area
T, p, , and V are all variables
A1V1 A2V2
continuity
1
1
2
p1 V1 p2 V22
2
2
continuity
Bernoulli
1 A1V1 2 A2V2
isentropic
energy
equation of state
at any point
T1 1
p1 1
p2 2
T2
1 2
1 2
c pT1 V1 c pT2 V2
2
2
p1 1 RT1
p2 2 RT2
dp
a
d
2
p
a RT
V
M
a
Steady flow
Unsteady flow
Adiabatic
Viscid flow
Inviscid flow
Compressible flow
Incompressible flow
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Reversible
Isentropic
Enthalpy
MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
SUBSONIC COMRESSIBLE FLOW
If M > 0.3, flow is compressible (density changes are important)
Need to introduce energy equation and isentropic relations
1 2
c pT1 V1 c pT0
2
2
T0
V1
1
T1
2c pT1
T0
1 2
1
M1
T1
2
p0
1 2
1
M1
p1
2
0
1 2
1
M1
1
2
1
1
MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
SUBSONIC COMRESSIBLE FLOW
So, how do we use these results to measure airspeed
2
M 12
1
2
a
2
1
V1
1
2
a
2
1
V1
1
2
a
2
s
Vcal
1
p0
p1
p0
p1
p0 and p1 give
Flight Mach number
Mach meter
p0 p1
1
p1
p0 p1
1
ps
M1=V1/a1
Actual Flight Speed
T0
1 2
1
M1
T1
2
Static temperature
Vehicle flight
Mach number
MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
SUPERSONIC FLOW
What can happen in supersonic flows?
Supersonic flows (M > 1) are qualitatively and quantitatively different
from subsonic flows (M < 1)
MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
SUPERSONIC FLOW
p02 1 M
2
p1 4M 1 2 1
2
2
1
1 2M 12
1
2 p0 p
Ve
s
2
cal
2a p0 p1
1
1
ps
2
s
p02
1 M
p1 4M 12 2 1
2
1
Subsonic,
incompressible
Subsonic,
compressible
1 2M 12
Supersonic
1
Area-Velocity Relation
AV constant
ln lnA lnV ln constant
d dA dV
A V
dp VdV
dVdV dA dV
0
dp
A V
VdV dA dV
2
0
a
A V
dA
dV
2
M 1
A
V
dA
dV
2
M 1
A
V
IF Flow is Subsonic (M < 1)
For V to increase (dV positive) area must decrease (dA negative)
Note that this is consistent with Eulers equation for dV and dp
IF Flow is Supersonic (M > 1)
For V to increase (dV positive) area must increase (dA positive)
IF Flow is Sonic (M = 1)
M = 1 occurs at a minimum area of cross-section
Minimum area is called a throat (dA/A = 0)
TRENDS: CONTRACTION
1: INLET
2: OUTLET
M1 < 1
V2 > V1
M1 > 1
V2 < V1
TRENDS: EXPANSION
1: INLET
2: OUTLET
M1 < 1
V2 < V1
M1 > 1
V2 > V1
1: INLET
2: OUTLET
Rocket nozzle
Compressible, isentropic
(adiabatic and frictionless)
flow along a streamline or in a
stream tube of varying area
T, p, , and V are all variables
A1V1 A2V2
continuity
1
1
2
p1 V1 p2 V22
2
2
continuity
Bernoulli
1 A1V1 2 A2V2
isentropic
energy
equation of state
at any point
T1 1
p1 1
p2 2
T2
1 2
1 2
c pT1 V1 c pT2 V2
2
2
p1 1 RT1
p2 2 RT2