Phase 2 - Measure

What is done?

Measurements related to problem area are taken

What needs to be measured?
How to measure it?
What is customer requirement?
What is the variation between the customer
requirement and the current level of performance?
Is there any additional measurement required to
precisely know the problem?
What measurements are required after the process
is improved?

Type of data to be collected

Continuous
Discrete

Scales of measurement

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

Data collection methodsSampling

Why is sampling required?
-- More economical
-- less handling
-- Few errors
Other points to consider before starting
sampling
1. Margin of error: Smaller the better
2. Sampling method and size: Larger the
better

Sampling plans
1. Simple random sample
2. Stratified sample

Simple random sample

Lot should be homogenous
Properties:
1. Each part in the sample has equal
opportunity of being selected
2. Each sample of the same size derived from
the population has an equal chance of
being selected
. Difference between the sample statistics
and actual values in the corresponding
population is known as sampling error

Contd.
Not suitable for changing processes
Cornerstone of six sigma process

Stratified sample
More refined than random sampling
Segregated from heterogeneous lot on the basis of
some criteria. For example: percentage
Three shifts taking data for each shift together
Reason from stratification:
1. Ensure that particular group is adequately
represented
2. Improve efficiency by gaining greater control over
sampling
. Expensive
. Complex to analyze

Measurement System
Analysis
Q: What is Measurement System Analysis (MSA)?
A: Its a set of techniques that allow us to answer the question:

IF I USE THIS GAGE TO MEASURE, HOW MUCH CAN I TRUST

THE MEASUREMENTS I GET?

MSA is based on Measurement Error

Understanding Measurement Error

Take a single item, and measure it multiple
times using the same gage/same
technique/same appraiser

Understanding Measurement Error

Record the measurements and draw a histogram

Understanding Measurement Error

The histogram represents a sample from a normal
distribution with a Mean, and a Standard Deviation
(derived from spread)

Understanding Measurement Error

Consider the position of the mean This is how
we determine the bias of the system
Imagine we had measured a reference size a standard of a known
dimension. We could compare the mean of our results to the actual size
of the standard.
The difference is Bias

Bias
Reference Value = 0.500 This is a known size
Mean of multiple measurements = 0.525
The gage is, on average, measuring about 0.025 too big.
It has a positive bias of 0.025

Bias

But, we have only dealt with Bias at one size at

one point in time
A Gage is used over a range of sizes and over a
period of time
Bias may change depending on these factors:
Linearity
Change in bias over the operating range of the
gage
Stability
Change in Bias over time

Bias
Linearity Change in Bias over operating range

Bias
Stability Change in Bias over time

Repeatability & Reproducibility

Bias is based on the location of the mean of the
distribution
We know that when one person uses the gage, we get
variation This is the variation inherent in the Gage
REPEATABILITY.
If we have more than one person using the gage, this
may introduce more variation - REPRODUCIBILITY

Variation
Repeatability &
Reproducibility

Possible Sources of Process Variation

Observed Process Variation

Actual Process Variation

Long-term

Short-term

Process Variation Process Variation

Measurement Variation

Variation

Variation due

Variation due

w/i sample

to gage

to operators

Repeatability

Calibration

Stability

Linearity

2 Observed Pr ocess 2 Actua l Pr ocess 2 Measurement System

2 Measurement System 2 Re peatability 2 Re producibility
We
We will
will look
look at
at repeatability
repeatability and
and reproducibility
reproducibility as
as primary
primary contributors
contributors to
to
measurement
measurement error
error

Types of Gauge R&R

Comparison with standards
Gauge R&R (crossed)

Comparison with standards

The following defined constants are
used in the method:
1. n is the number of units with preinspected standard values available.
2. m is the number of appraisers that
can be assigned to perform tests.
3. r is the current total number of runs
at any given time in the method.

Terminology
Standard unit: any of the n units with
standard values available
Absolute error: absolute value of the
measurement errors for a given test run
EEEAE : Estimates errors of the expected
absolute errors
Measurement system capability (MSA) = 6 X
EEAE (Estimated expected absolute errors)
Gauge capable: If MSA <D, where user
specified maximum tolerable difference
from standard value. Thus 6 X EEAE < D

Example

Use
two
12.0-pound
dumbbells
to
determine
whether
the
following
measurement
standard
operating
procedure (SOP) is gauge capable of
telling apart differences of 5.0 pounds.
1. Put Taylor Metro scale (dial indicator
model) on a flat surface.
2. Adjust dial to set reading to zero.
3. Place items on scale and record the
weight, rounding to the nearest pound.

Gauge R&R (Crossed)

 Gauge capable if 6*R&R < D

Process Capability
Analysis

36

Introduction

Required to analyse whether a product or service meets the

specifications given by the customer by indicating the
measure of process performance
Process capability analysis has to be conducted only when
the process is in a state of statistical control
Specification limit
Generally used interchangeably with tolerance limit
Limits that define the conformance boundaries for an
individual unit of a manufacturing or service operation
(ANSI, A1, 1987)
Are used for categorizing materials, product or services
in terms of their stated requirements
Are determined by the needs of the customer
Are placed on the product characteristic by engineers or
designers to ensure proper functioning of product
Represents the desired bound on the variability for
individual items
37

Introduction Contd..
Tolerance limit

Are subset of specifications

They pertain to physical requirements (length, diameter,
thickness etc), but specification limits includes all
Are preferred in evaluating the manufacturing or service
requirements
Can be two sided or one sided
Lower tolerance limit (LTL) defines the lower
conformance boundary for an individual unit of a
manufacturing or service and UTL refers to upper
conformance boundary
Example: Specification of a building crane is a hoist load of
5000 +/- 300 kg. To satisfy this, the diameter of the steel
cable should be 4 +/- 0.2 cm

Control limits

Identify the variation that exists between samples or

reflect the variability of the process
No relationship with the specification limits

38

Process capability Analysis

Determination of process capability begins only after
the process has been brought to a state of statistical
control
Process capability

Represents the performance of a process in a state of

statistical control
Determined by the total variability that exists due to all
common causes present in the system
It can be viewed as the variation in the product quality
characteristic that remain after all special causes has
been removed
It can also be a measure of uniformity of a quality
characteristic of interest
A common measure of process capability is given by 6
also called as process spread
Distance 6 encompasses virtually all values of the
output quality characteristic
39

Process capability analysis

Involves estimating the process mean and
standard deviation
Also the form of the relative frequency
distribution of the characteristic of interest is
estimated
If specification limits are known, proportion of non
conforming products can also be estimated
To be precise, a process capability study involves
observing a quality characteristic of the product
and hence should be called product analysis
study
A true process capability study should involve
collecting and analysing data related to process
parameters like feed, depth of cut etc.
Objective of this study is to find the relationship
40
between process parameter and the product

Process capability analysis

Contd..
Benefits

Continuous estimation and monitoring of these

parameters will ensure the best performance that the
process is capable of achieving
Used to take decision regarding buying of new machine
or about quality of raw materials etc, based on the
process average and process spread
Uniformity of output: helps to control the variability and
hence more uniform output is obtained
Maintained or improved quality
Product and process design facilitated
Information from process capability provides feedback to
design thereby making them aware of inherent variation
and hence reduces lead time of product by designing for
given tolerance

Helpful in vendor selection and control

Reduction in total cost: helps in monitoring the
production of non conforming items

41

Natural Tolerance Limits

Called as process capability limits, which
are established or influenced by the
process itself
Represents the inherent variation in the
quality characteristic of the individual
items produced by a process in control
Estimated based on population or from
large representative of samples
Assuming a normal distribution of quality
characteristic X then LNTL = + 3 and
UNTL = - 3,where is process mean
and is process standard deviation
42

Statistical tolerance limits

Defined by ANSI / ASQC as the limits of an
interval that (with a given level of
confidence ) contains at least a specified
proportion (1-) of the population
Limits are found from sampling
information
Example Level of confidence of 0.98,
while sample size is 10 and 95% of the
part length will be between 30 and 35mm
Limits are influenced by sample size
As sample size increase, statistical
tolerance limit approach the values found
from population parameters
43

Specifications and process capability

Technically, there might not be a mathematical
relationship between the process capability limits
(NTL) and the specification limits
NTL is determined by the condition of the process
and its inherent variability
Specification limits are influenced by customer
A desired relationship is that specification limits
are preferably outside the natural tolerance
limits, in which case, most of the units produced
will be acceptable
Case i: Process spread less than specification
spread
Process is quite capable and a preferred situation
Spread between specification (USL-LSL) > spread
between natural limits (UNTL LNTL)

44

Specifications and process

capability Contd..
Case i Contd..
If the process mean at the target value (midway
between the specification limits), all items produced are
well with in specification
Even if process go out of control, process mean shift to 1
or process standard deviation increase to 1 still, items
produced will still meet specifications
But use of control chart can help in bringing back the out
of control situation to controlled situation
Case ii Process spread equal to specification spread
(USL LSL) = (UNTL LNTL) - Acceptable or adequate
situation and there is no room for error
For process in control, virtually all items (99.74%) produced
will be with in specification
For out of control process, say shift in mean or standard
deviation increases, will result in a proportion of the product
non conforming
46

Specifications and process capability

Contd..
Case iii: Process spread greater than
specification spread

(USL LSL) > (UNTL LNTL)

Undesirable situation
Inherent variability of the process exceeds the
specification spread even though the process is
in control
Always some proportion of items produced will
not meet specification
Shift in mean or increase in standard deviation
result in increasing proportion of the product
not meeting specification
Such process is not capable
48

Specifications and process capability

Contd..
Corrective measures

Possibility of increasing the specification limits

Careful consideration must be given to meet the

needs of the customer and hence specification limits
should be determined before

Reduce the process spread

Investing in new equipment, better raw material, use

of experienced operators etc.

Not economically feasible to reduce process

variability through large investment, it is better
to shift the process average to achieve a
desirable balance in the proportion of scrap and
rework
Cost of scrap/unit is greater than cost of rework
Produce less scrap and more rework - a feasible short
term plan
49

Specifications and process capability

Contd..
Corrective measures contd..

Leave the process unchanged, perform

100% inspection to eliminate the non
conforming parts

Not an ideal solution, as 100% inspection

may not get rid of all non conforming items
100% inspection is merely a sorting activity
and it does not get to the root causes
It cannot be used to analyse the causes and
to determine corrective measures

Best approach is to do things right the

first time and reduce reliance on
inspection
50

NTLs, SLs and CLs

51

Process capability
index

The ability of a process to meet specification

limit should be estimated only, when it is in state
of statistical control
The process has no special causes and hence
variability is the reflection of what the process
can achieve
First step is to analyse whether the process is in
control before we go for process capability
analysis
Assumptions
Process output (distribution of quality characteristic) is
normal, which helps to estimate the proportion of non
conforming
Assumption of normality can be validated by empirical
plots of histogram, normal probability parts,
55 statistical
test for goodness of fit like chi-square test, Klomogrov

Process capability index Contd..

Ability to meet specification is the criteria for
measuring the attractiveness of the process
Capability indices are non-dimensional, makes
them more versatile and appealing because they
do not depend on specific process parameter
units
It takes care of location and the variation of the
process
Cp index
Common measure to describe the potential of a
process to meet specification
Relates process spread (difference between natural
tolerance limits) to specification spread Cp = USL
LSL / 6
56

Process capability index Contd..

Cp index contd..

When is unknown, it is replaced by its estimate say

sample standard deviation (Rbar/d2 or sbar /c4)
A process centred between specification limits will
produce a minimum proportions of items that fall
outside these limits
It is desirable to have Cp >= 1, If Cp = 1, the process
spread equals specification spread and process is said
to be barely capable
If process is not centred, it is possible that even for
process with Cp > 1, some proportion of the product will
be non-conforming
If Cp < 1, inherent variability in the process as
measured by process spread 6, is greater than the
specification limit
Cp is the ratio of allowable process spread and actual
process spread
It does not take to account the location of 57
the process
and is a measure of process potential and not process

Process capability index Contd..

Upper and Lower capability indices
Used when only one specification limit
Indices can be derived that measure shifts in the
process mean relative to the process spread
CPU

USL
3

For a given upper specification limit, upper capability

index is given by
It is desirable to have CPU greater than 1

58

Process capability index Contd..

Upper and Lower capability indices contd..
Similarly if the lower specification limit is given, the
lower capability index (CPL) is given by

LSL
CPL
3
It is desirable to have CPL greater than or equal to 1

59

Process capability index Contd..

Cpk Index
It accounts for the location of the process mean and
used when it is not at the target mean
Cpk is given by
USL LSL
C pk min{CPU , CPL } min
,

3
3

Desirable values of Cpk is greater than or equal to 1

It represents the actual capability of the process with
the existing parameter values. It measures process
performance
For the given process Cpk < 1, the value of Cp > 1
indicating process can potentially meet specifications
60
(Refer figure)

Process capability index Contd..

Cpk Index contd..
Solution is to move the process mean towards midpoint
m
A measure of this deviation of the process meanmfrom

k
target m is given by scaled distance k
USL LSL

C pk2 C p (1 k )
Where m is sum of USL and LSL divided by
Relationship between Cp and Cpk is given by

If process mean is at the target m, k = 0 and hence C p

= Cpk and if process mean is at the USL or LSL then C pk
=0

61

Process capability index Contd..

Cpk index - contd..
When the process mean is outside the
specification, cpk is negative

Cp

Cpk is always less than or equal to Cp

Measure of the process

potential
Does not change as the
process mean changes

Cpk

Incorporates both the

process mean and the
standard deviation to
measure actual process
performance
Changes
with
the
process mean, if the
process is centred, Cpk =
Cp
62

Question
In an electrical circuit, the capacitance of a
component should be between 25 and 40
pico farads. A sample of 25 components
yields a mean of 30 pF and a standard
deviation of 3pF. Calculate the process
capability index Cpk and comment on the
process performance. If the process is not
capable, what proportion of the product is
nonconforming,
assuming
a
normal
distribution of the characteristic?

Process capability index Contd..

Capability Ratio

A measure of the ability of the process to produce item

within specification limit is based on the specification
range (USL LSL), that is used by the process
As process spreads increase, it tend to use more of this
specification band
6
Capability ratio CR is given CR
by

USL LSL

It is expressed as a % to indicate the % of specification

range used
A CR <= 1, is desirable and processes that are centred
and have a large value of Cp will obviously use much
less of the specification range
It is a measure of process potential as it calculates % of
specification range used under ideal circumstance of a
process
65

Process capability index Contd..

Taguchi Capability Index Cpm
Based on the reduction of variability around the target
USL LSL
value T
C pm
6
Cpm is given by
2
2
2

E
[(
X

T
)
]

T
)
is the standard deviation from the target value and

given by

T
C pm

where
2
2
2

1
(by
T )
Hence Cpm is6given
USL LSL

Cp

Represents the deviation of the process mean from the

target value in units of standard deviation66

Question
A process in control has an estimated
standard deviation of 2 mm. We have
a product with specification limits of
1208mm and a target value of 120
mm. Calculate the Cp, CPL, CPU, Cpk
and Cpm for the process if the process
mean shifts from 118 mm first to 122
mm and then to 124 mm but the
process variability remains the same.

Question
USL = 62mm; LSL = 38 mm; T= 50
Mean = 50; SD = 4
Mean = 56; SD = 2
Mean = 59; SD = 1

Continued
If the natural tendency of process is
to get deviated towards higher side of
mean and if it deviates 1 mm per
week, how many resetting at target
value will be required in an year?
Assume that company can bear
maximum 5% defectives on higher
side of mean and it takes Rs. 10,000
for each resetting of process mean.
Which process among A, B and C