INTRODUCTION OF

CONTROL ENGINEERING
BY
ASHVANI SHUKLA
MANAGER(C&I)
BGR ENERGY

BASIC INTRODUCTION

Control system engineering is the branch of engineering which deals with

the principles of control theory to design a system which gives desired behavior
in a controlled manner. Hence, this is interdisciplinary. Control system
engineers analyze, design, and optimize complex systems which consist of
highly integrated coordination of mechanical, electrical, chemical, metallurgical,
electronic or pneumatic elements. Thus control engineering deals with
diverse range of dynamic systems which include human and technological
interfacing.

Control system engineering focuses on analysis and design of systems to

improve the speed of response, accuracy and stability of system. The two
methods of control system include classical methods and modern methods. The
mathematical model of system is set up as first step followed by analysis,
designing and testing. Necessary conditions for the stability are checked and
finally optimization follows.

DISTURBENCES

INPUT

CONTROL SYSTEM

OUTPUT

MANIPULATED
VARIABLES

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CONTROL

SYSTEM

 Modern control engineering deals with Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)
systems, State space approach, Eigen values and vectors etc. Instead of
transforming complex ordinary differential equations, modern approach converts
higher order equations to first order differential equations and solved by vector
method. Automatic control systems are most commonly used as it does not
involve manual control. The controlled variable is measured and compared with a
specified value to obtain the desired result. As a result of automated systems for
control purposes, the cost of energy or power as well as the cost of process will be
reduced increasing its quality and productivity.

Historical Review of Control Engineering

The application of Automatic control system is believed to be in use even from the
ancient civilizations. Several types of water clock were designed and implemented
to measure the time accurately from the third century BC, by Greeks and Arabs.
But the first Automatic system is considered as the Watts Fly ball Governor in
1788, which started the industrial revolution. The mathematical modeling of
Governor is analyzed by Maxwell in 1868. In 19th century, Leonhard Euler, Pierre
Simon Laplace and Joseph Fourier developed different methods for mathematical
modeling. The second system is considered as Al Butzs Damper Flapper thermostat in 1885. He started the company now named as Honeywell.

 Types of Control Engineering

Control engineering has its own categorization depending on the different
methodologies used, which are as follows.

Classical Control Engineering : The systems are usually represented by using

ordinary differential equations. In classical control engineering, these equations are
transformed and analyzed in transformed domain. Laplace transform, Fourier
transform and z transform are examples. This method is commonly used in Single
Input Single Output systems.

Modern Control Engineering : In modern control engineering higher order

differential equations are converted to first order differential equations. These
equations are solved very similar to vector method. By doing so, many
complications dealt in solving higher order differential equations are solved. These
are applied in Multiple Input Multiple Output systems where analysis in frequency
domain is not possible. Nonlinearities with multiple variables are solved by modern
methodology. State space vectors, Eigen values and Eigen Vectors longs to this
category. State Variables describe the input, output and system variables.

Robust Control Engineering : In robust control methodology, the changes in

performance of system with change in parameters are measured for optimization.
This aids in widening the stability and performance, also in finding alternate
solutions. Hence in robust control the environment, internal in accuracies, noises
and disturbances are considered to reduce the fault in system.

Optimal Control Engineering : In optimal control engineering, the problem is

formulated as mathematical model of process, physical constraints and
performance constraints, to minimize the cost function. Thus optimal control
engineering is the most feasible solution for designing a system with minimum
cost.

Adaptive Control Engineering : In adaptive control engineering, the controllers

employed are adaptive controllers in which parameters are made adaptive by
some mechanism. The block diagram given below shows an adaptive control
system.

Nonlinear Control Engineering : Non linear control engineering focuses on the

non linearitys which cannot be represented by using linear ordinary differential
equations. This system will exhibit multiple isolated equilibrium points, limit
cycles, bifurcations with finite escape time. The main limitation is that it requires
laborious mathematical analysis. In this analysis the system is divided into linear

 On Off Control Theory | Controller

Sometimes, the control element has only two position either it is
fully closed or fully open. This control element does not operate at
any intermediate position, i.e. partly open or partly closed position.
The control system made for controlling such elements, is known as
on off control theory. In this control system, when process
variable changes and crosses certain preset level, the output valve
of the system is suddenly fully opened and gives 100% output.

Generally in on off control system, the output causes change in

process variable. Hence due to effect of output, the process variable
again starts changing but in reverse direction. During this change,
when process variable crosses certain predetermined level, the
output valve of the system is immediately closed and output is
suddenly reduced to 0%.

 As there is no output, the process variable again starts changing in its normal
direction. When it crosses the preset level, the output valve of the system is
again fully open to give 100% output. This cycle of closing and opening of
output valve continues till the said on-off control system is in operation. A very
common example of on-off control theory is fan controlling scheme of
transformer cooling system. When transformer runs with such a load, the
temperature of the electrical power transformer rises beyond the preset value
at which the cooling fans start rotating with their full capacity. As the cooling
fans run, the forced air (output of the cooling system) decreases the
temperature of the transformer. When the temperature (process variable)
comes down below a preset value, the control switch of fans trip and fans stop
supplying forced air to the transformer. After that, as there is no cooling effect
of fans, the temperature of the transformer again starts rising due to load.
Again when during rising, the temperature crosses the preset value, the fans
again start rotating to cool down the transformer. Theoretically, we assume
that there is no lag in the control equipment. That means, there is no time day
for on and off operation of control equipment. With this assumption if we draw
series of operations of an ideal on off control system, we will get the graph
given below.

 But in practical on off control, there is always a non zero time

delay for closing and opening action of controller elements.
This time delay is known as dead time. Because of this time
delay the actual response curve differs from the above shown
ideal response curve. Let us try to draw actual response
curve of an on off control system.

 Say at time T O the temperature of the transformer starts rising. The measuring
instrument of the temperature does not response instantly, as it requires some
time delay for heating up and expansion of mercury in temperature sensor
bulb say from instant T 1 the pointer of the temperature indicator starts rising.
This rising is exponential in nature. Let us at point A, the controller system
starts actuating for switching on cooling fans and finally after period of T 2 the
fans starts delivering force air with its full capacity. Then the temperature of
the transformer starts decreasing in exponential manner.

At point B, the controller system starts actuating for switching off the cooling
fans and finally after a period of T 3 the fans stop delivering force air. Then the
temperature of the transformer again starts rising in same exponential
manner. N.B.: Here during this operation we have assumed that,
loading condition of the electrical power transformer, ambient
temperature and all other conditions of surrounding are fixed and
constant.

 Control System | Closed Loop Open Loop Control System

When a number of elements are combined together to form a system to produce desired
output then the system is referred as control system. As this system controls the output, it
is so referred. Each element connected to the system has its own effect on the output.
Definition of Control System

A control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages, commands,

directs or regulates the behavior of other device(s) or system(s) to achieve desire results.
In other words the definition of control system can be rewritten as A control system
is a system, which controls other system.

As the human civilization is being modernized day by day the demand of automation is
increasing accordingly. Automation highly requires control of devices. In recent years,
control systems plays main role in the development and advancement of modern
technology and civilization. Practically every aspects of our day-to-day life is affected less
or more by some control system. A bathroom toilet tank, a refrigerator, an air conditioner,
a geezer, an automatic iron, an automobile all are control system. These systems are also
used in industrial process for more output. We find control system in quality control of
products, weapons system, transportation systems, power system, space technology,
robotics and many more. The principles of control theory is applicable to engineering
and non engineering field both.

Feature of Control System

 The main feature of control system is, there should be a clear mathematical
relation between input and output of the system. When the relation between
input and output of the system can be represented by a linear proportionality,
the system is called linear control system. Again when the relation between
input and output cannot be represented by single linear proportionality,
rather the input and output are related by some non-linear relation, the
system is referred as non-linear control system. Requirement of Good
Control System

Accuracy: Accuracy is the measurement tolerance of the instrument and

defines the limits of the errors made when the instrument is used in normal
operating conditions. Accuracy can be improved by using feedback elements.
To increase accuracy of any control system error detector should be present in
control system.

Sensitivity: The parameters of control system are always changing with

change in surrounding conditions, internal disturbance or any other
parameters. This change can be expressed in terms of sensitivity. Any control
system should be insensitive to such parameters but sensitive to input signals
only.

 Noise: An undesired input signal is known as noise. A good control

system should be able to reduce the noise effect for better performance.
Stability: It is an important characteristic of control system. For the
bounded input signal, the output must be bounded and if input is zero
then output must be zero then such a control system is said to be stable
system. Bandwidth: An operating frequency range decides the
bandwidth of control system. Bandwidth should be large as possible for
frequency response of good control system. Speed: It is the time taken
by control system to achieve its stable output. A good control system
possesses high speed. The transient period for such system is very
small. Oscillation: A small numbers of oscillation or constant oscillation
of output tend to system to be stable.

Types of Control Systems.

Open loop control system
Closed loop control system

 A control system in which the control action is totally

independent of output of the system then it is called open
loop control system. Manual control system is also an open
loop control system. Fig - 1 shows the block diagram of open
loop control system in which process output is totally
independent of controller action. Practical Examples of
Open Loop Control System

Electric Hand Drier Hot air (output) comes out as long as

you keep your hand under the machine, irrespective of how
much your hand is dried.

Automatic Washing Machine This machine runs

according to the pre-set time irrespective of washing is
completed or not.

 Before I introduce you the theory of control system it is very essential to know
the various types of control systems. Now there are various types of
systems, we are going to discuss only those types of systems that will help us
to understand the theory of control system and detail description of these
types of system are given below: Linear Control Systems

In order to understand the linear control system, we should know the

principle of superposition. The principle of superposition theorem includes two
the important properties and they are explained below:

Examples of Linear Control System

Consider a purely resistive network with a constant dc source. This circuit
follows the principle of homogeneity and additivity. All the undesired effects
are neglected and assuming ideal behavior of each element in the network,
we say that we will get linear voltage and current characteristic. This is the
example of linear control system. Non-linear Systems

We can simply define non linear control system as all those system which
do not follow the principle of homogeneity. In practical life all the systems are
non-linear system.

 Examples of Non-linear System

A well known example of non-linear system is magnetization
curve or no load curve of a dc machine. We will discuss
briefly no load curve of dc machines here: No load curve
gives us the relationship between the air gap flux and the
field winding mmf. It is very clear from the curve given below
that in the beginning there is a linear relationship between
winding mmf and the air gap flux but after this, saturation
has come which shows the non linear behavior of the curve
or characteristics of the non linear control system.

 Analog or Continuous System

In these types of control system we have continuous signal as the input to the system.
These signals are the continuous function of time. We may have various sources of continuous
input signal like sinusoidal type signal input source, square type of signal input source, signal
may be in the form of continuous triangle etc. Digital or Discrete System

In these types of control system we have discrete signal (or signal may be in the form of pulse)
as the input to the system. These signals have the discrete interval of time. We can convert
various sources of continuous input signal like sinusoidal type signal input source, square type
of signal input source etc into discrete form using the switch.

Now there are various advantages of discrete or digital system over the analog system and
these advantages are written below:

Digital systems can handle non linear control systems more effectively than the analog type of
systems.

Power requirement in case of discrete or digital system is less as compared to analog systems.
Digital system has higher rate of accuracy and can perform various complex computations
easily as compared to analog systems.

Reliability of digital system is more as compared to analog system. They also have small and
compact size.

Digital system works on the logical operations which increases their accuracy many times.
Losses in case of discrete systems are less as compared to analog systems in general.

 Single Input Single Output Systems

These are also known as SISO type of system. In this the system has single input
for single output. Various example of this kind of system may include temperature
control, position control system etc. Multiple Input Multiple Output Systems

These are also known as MIMO type of system. In this the system has multiple
outputs for multiple inputs. Various example of this kind of system may include
PLC type system etc. Lumped Parameter System

In these types of control systems the various active (resistor) and passive
parameters (like inductor and capacitor) are assumed to be concentrated at a
point and thats why these are called lumped parameter type of system. Analysis
of such type of system is very easy which includes differential equations.
Distributed Parameter System

In these types of control systems the various active (resistor) and passive
parameters (like inductor and capacitor) are assumed to be distributed uniformly
along the length and thats why these are called distributed parameter type of
system. Analysis of such type of system is slightly difficult which includes partial
differential equations.

 Block Diagrams of Control System

The block diagram is to represent a control system in diagram
form. In other words practical representation of a control system is
its block diagram. It is not always convenient to derive the entire
transfer function of a complex control system in a single function.
It is easier and better to derive transfer function of control element
connected to the system, separately. The transfer function of each
element is then represented by a block and they are then
connected together with the path of signal flow. For simplifying a
complex control system, block diagrams are used. Each element of
the control system is represented with a block and the block is the
symbolic representation of transfer function of that element. A
complete control system can be represented with a required
number of interconnected such blocks. In the figure below, there

 In addition to that, the diagram also shows there is a

feedback path through which output signal C(s) is fed back
and compared with the input R(s) and the difference between
input and output E(s) = R(s) C(s) is acting as actuating
signal or error signal.

In each block of diagram, the output and input are related

together by transfer function. Where, transfer function.

G(S) =C(S)/R(s)
where, C(s) is the output and R(s) is the input of that
particular block.
C(s)

G(S)

R(s)