CONTROL SYSTEM

INSTRUMENTATION
Arellano, Hanna Lissajous L.
Cruz, Tiff any Grace V.
Ilaga, Marie Luz J.
Mateo, Mizzrah M.
Tan, Rose Marie B.

SENSORS, TRANSMITTERS, AND

TRANSDUCERS
The operation of complex industrial plants would be difficult, if not impossible,
without the measurement and control of critical process variables. Large plants
typically have hundreds or thousands of process variables that are repetitively
measured on-line every few seconds or minutes.
A physical variable is measured by a sensor which produces a physical response
(e.g., electrical or mechanical) that is related to the value of the process variable.

For example, in the stirred-tank heating

system in Fig. 9.1, the thermocouple
generates a millivolt electrical signal that
increases as the temperature of the liquid
increases. However, for this temperature
measurement to be used in the control
calculations, the millivolt level signal
must be converted to an appropriate
voltage or current signal in a standard
input range for the controller. This
conversion is done by a transmitter.
It is often necessary to convert an
instrumentation signal from one form to
another. A device that performs this
conversion is referred to as a transducer.

Standard Instrumentation Signal

Levels
Before 1960, instrumentation in the process industries utilized pneumatic (air
pressure) signals to transmit measurement and control information almost
exclusively. These devices make use of mechanical force balance elements to
generate signals in the range of 3 to 15 psig, an industry standard. Since about 1960,
electronic instrumentation has become predominant. The standard signal ranges for
analog instruments are 4 to 20 rnA and 1 to 5 V, direct current (VDC).

Sensors Selection Criteria

1. Measurement range (span). The required measurement range for the process
variable must lie entirely within the instrument's range of performance.
2. Performance. Depending on the application, accuracy, repeatability, or some other
measure of performance is appropriate. For closed-loop control, speed of response is
also important.
3. Reliability. Manufacturers provide baseline conditions. Previous experience with the
measurement device is very important.
4. Materials of construction. The instrument may need to withstand high
temperatures, high pressures, and corrosive and abrasive environments. For some
applications, seals or purges may be necessary.

Sensors Selection Criteria (Cotd)

5. Prior use. For the first installation of a specific measurement device at a site,
training of maintenance personnel and purchases of spare parts might be necessary.
6. Potential for releasing process materials to the environment. Preventing exposure
to fugitive emissions for maintenance personnel is important when the process fluid
is corrosive or toxic. Sterility in bioprocesses must be maintained.
7. Electrical classification. If the sensor is not inherently compatible with possible
exposure to hazards, suitable enclosures must be purchased and included in the
installation costs.
8. Invasive or non-invasive. The insertion of a probe (invasive) can cause fouling,
which leads to inaccurate measurements. Probe location must be selected carefully
to ensure measurement accuracy and minimize fouling.

Temperature. The most common temperature

sensors are filled systems, thermocouples,
resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), and
pyrometers.
Differential Pressure. For pneumatic
instrumentation, pressure sensing is quite
straightforward. A bellows, bourdon tube, or
diaphragm isolates process liquid or gas from the
instrument, at the same time furnishing a deflection
to a force-balance element that generates a
proportional signal in the 3 to 15 psig range.
Liquid or Gas Flow Rate. Selection of a flow
transmitter should consider the following factors:
nature of the flowing material (liquid/gas/solid),
corrosiveness, mass vs. volume measurement,
nature of the signal, cost, accuracy, current plant
practice, space available, and necessary
maintenance (Spitzer, 2001).

Liquid Level. The position of a free float or the buoyancy effects on a fixed float can be
detected and converted to level if the liquid density is known. The difference in pressure
between the vapor above the liquid and the bottom of the liquid can be similarly used.
Chemical Composition. Chemical composition is generally the most challenging on-line
measurement. Before the era of on-line analyzers, messengers were required to deliver
samples to the laboratory for analysis and to return the results to the control room.
In order to obtain quantitative composition measurements, specific instruments must be
chosen depending on the nature of the species to be analyzed. Measuring a specific
concentration requires a unique chemical or physical attribute.

As an example, complete analysis of a combustion gas requires multiple on-line

analyzers as follows:

Physical Properties. This category includes such measurements as density,

moisture, turbidity, viscosity, refractive index, pH, dielectric constant, and thermal
conductivity.

Static and Dynamic Characteristics

As noted above, the output signal from a
sensor transmitter (or transmitter) must be
compatible with the input range of the
controller that receives the signal. Transmitters
are generally designed to be direct-acting; that
is, the output signal increases as the measured
variable increases. In addition, most
commercial transmitters have an adjustable
input range. For example, a temperature
transmitter might be adjusted so that the input
range of a platinum resistance element (the
sensor)is 50-150 C. In this case, the following
correspondence is obtained:

For any linear

instrument,

For a nonlinear instrument, the gain at an operating point is the tangent to the
characteristic input-output relation at the operating point. Figure 9.6 illustrates a typical
case. Note that the gain changes whenever the operating point changes; hence, it is
preferable to utilize instruments that exhibit nearly linear behavior. Gain Km changes
when the span is changed but is invariant to changes in the zero.

Dynamic Characteristics of
Sensor-Transmitters
Many sensor-transmitters respond quickly and have measurement dynamics that are
negligible compared to slower process dynamics. For other applications where
measurement dynamics are not negligible, significant dynamic errors can occur, that
is, large differences between the true values and the measured values for transient
conditions. For example, a bare thermocouple will have a rapid response to a
changing fluid temperature. But a thermocouple placed in a protective thermowell
with a large mass and large specific heat, can have a significant measurement time
constant. Representative time constants for a variety of sensors have been reported
(Riggs and Karim, 2006).

Many sensor-transmitters have over damped dynamics and exhibit monotonic

responses to a step change in the variable being measured. Thus, it is reasonable to
model this type of measurement dynamics as a first order transfer function between
the actual value y and the measured value Ym:

Significant measurement dynamics can occur due to a poor sensor location or a long
sampling line. For example, if a pH sensor for a continuous neutralization process is
located in the exit line, a long distance from the process vessel, a significant time delay
can arise due to the distance-velocity lag. Time delays can also result when an on-line
composition measurement requires a long sample line because an expensive analyzer in a
protected environment is located a long distance from the sample location near the
process unit. This common situation can produce a significant distance-velocity lag.