INTRODUCTION TO

DYES
AND DYEING

Lecture# 01 & 06
Mujahid Mehdi Abro

Indus University Karachi.


Dye: A coloured organic compound or mixture that may be

used for imparting colour to a substrate such as cloth, paper,

plastic or leather.
Requirements of a Dye:
Suitable colour
Attractive colour.
Able to attach itself.
Must be water soluble
Substrates must be affinity to dye.
After fixation of dye, it must be good (properties) washing,

cleaning etc.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE CHEMISTRY OF DYES

Dyes possess colour because

1) Absorb light in the visible spectrum (400700 nm)

2) Have at least one chromophore (colour-bearing group),
3) Have a conjugated system, i.e. a structure with alternating double
and single bonds.
4) Exhibit resonance of electrons, which is a stabilizing force in
organic compounds.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE CHEMISTRY OF DYES

Dyes possess colour because

Organic dyes, whether natural or synthetic, are complex

unsaturated compounds having certain substituent groups. The
unsaturated part of the molecule is called the chromophore,
which, ultimately, is responsible for the colour. In textile dyes,
the chromophore usually consists of aromatic rings e.g.
anthraquinone and triphenylmethane or Azo groups e.g. Azo
benzene.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE CHEMISTRY OF DYES

Although these chromophores do give characteristic colours,

these colours tend to be very weak because most of the light

they absorb is at wavelengths in the ultraviolet region, which
is invisible. The final colour, however, is influenced by the
presence of substituent groups known as auxochromes,
which shift the wavelengths of the light absorbed into the
visible region. Typical auxochromes are CO, OH and NH2.

 Most dyes also contain groups known as auxochromes (colour

helpers), examples of which are carboxylic acid, sulfonic acid,

amino, and hydroxyl groups.
While these are not responsible for colour, their presence can

shift the colour of a colourant and they are most often used to
influence dye solubility.

Classification Systems for Dyes

1. Chemical Classification:
The most appropriate system for the classification of dyes is

by chemical structure,
Advantages:
it readily identifies dyes as belonging to a group that has

characteristic properties.
EX. Azo dyes (strong, good all-round properties, costeffective) and anthraquinone, dyes (weak, expensive).

2. Usage Classification:
Classification by usage or application is the principal system

adopted by the Colour Index. Because the most important

textile fibers are cotton and polyester.
The most important dye types are those used for dyeing these

two fibers, including polyester. cotton blends.

Other

textile fibers include nylon, polyacrylonitrile, and

cellulose acetate.

FABRIC COLORATION
There are two methods fabric coloration:
1. Dyeing
2. Printing

DYEING

DYES
Substances that add color to

textiles.
They are incorporated into the
fiber by chemical reaction,
absorption, or dispersion.
Dyes differ in their resistance to
sunlight, perspiration, washing,
gas, alkalis, and other agents;
their affinity for different fibers;
their reaction to cleaning agents
and methods; and their solubility
and method of application.

Types of Dyes
Natural Dyes

Obtained from plants

Obtained from animals

Obtained from minerals

2. Synthetic Dyes

Basic Dyes

Reactive Dyes

Sulfur Dyes

Azoic Dyes

Mordant Dyes etc.

1.

DYEING
Dyeing is the process of imparting colors to a textile material

through a dye (color).

Color is applied to fabric by different methods of dyeing for
different types of fiber and at different stages of the textile
production process.
These methods include
Direct dyeing
2.
Stock dyeing
3.
Top dyeing
4.
Yarn dyeing
5.
Piece dyeing
6.
Solution pigmenting or dope dyeing
7.
Garment dyeing etc.
Of these Direct dyeing and Yarn Dyeing methods are the most popular ones.
1.

Direct Dyeing
When a dye is applied

directly to the fabric without

the aid of an affixing agent,
it is called direct dyeing.

Stock Dyeing
Stock dyeing refers to the dyeing

of the fibers, or stock, before it is

spun in to yarn. It is done by
putting loose fibers in to large vats
containing the dye bath, which is
then heated to the appropriate
temperature required for the dye
application and dyeing process.
Stock dyeing is usually suitable for

woolen materials when heather

like color effects are desired.

Top Dyeing
Top dyeing is also the dyeing of the fiber

before it is spun in to yarn and serves the

same purpose as stock dyeing that is,
to produce soft, heather like color effects.
The term top refers to the fibers of wool
from which the short fibers have been
removed.
Top is thus selecting long fibers that are
used to spin worsted yarn.
The top in the form of sliver is dyed and
then blended with other colors of dyed
top to produce desired heather shades.

Solution Pigmenting Or Dope Dyeing

This is a method applied for

dyeing the synthetic fibers.

Dye is added to the solution
before it is extruded through
the spinnerets for making
synthetic filaments. This gives
a colorfast fiber as the
pigments are used which are
the fastest known colors.

Yarn Dyeing
Yarn dyeing is the dyeing of the yarns before they have been

woven or knitted into fabrics.

Yarn dyeing is used to create interesting checks, stripes and
plaids with different-colored yarns in the weaving process.
In yarn dyeing, dyestuff penetrates the fibers in the core of the
yarn.
There are many forms of yarn dyeing- Skein (Hank) Dyeing,
Package Dyeing, Warp-beam Dyeing, and Space Dyeing.

A. Skein (Hank) Dyeing

Skein dyeing consists of

immersing large, loosely

wound hanks (skeins) of yarn
into dye vats that are
especially designed for this
purpose.
Soft, lofty yarns, such as hand
knitted yarns are usually skein
dyed. Skein dyeing is the most
costly yarn-dye method.

B. Package Dyeing
In package dyeing the yarn is wound

on a small perforated spool or tube

called a package.
Many spools fit into the dyeing
machine in which the flow of the dye
bath alternates from the center to the
outside, and then from the outside to
the center of the package.
Package dyed yarns do not retain the
softness and loftiness that skein-dyed
yarns do.
They are however satisfactory and
very widely used for most types of
yarns that are found in knitted and
woven fabrics.

C. Warp Beam Dyeing

Beam dyeing is the much larger

version of package dyeing.

An entire warp beam is wound on to
a perforated cylinder, which is then
placed in the beam dyeing machine,
where the flow of the dye bath
alternate as in the package dyeing.
Beam dyeing is more economical
than skein or package dyeing, but it
is only used in the manufacture of
woven fabrics where an entire warp
beam is dyed.
Knitted fabrics, which are mostly
produced from the cones of the yarn,
are not adaptable to beam dyeing.

D. Space Dyeing
In this method, the yarn is dyed at

intervals along its length. For this knitdeknit method is adopted.

Where the yarn is knitted on either a
circular or flat-bed knitting machine
and the knitted cloth is then dyed and
subsequently it is deknitted.
Since the dye does not readily
penetrate the areas of the yarn where
it crosses itself, alternated dyed and
undyed spaces appear.

Piece Dyeing
The constructed fabrics are piece dyed for the flexibility they provide. The

textile manufacturer can dye the whole fabric in batches according to the
fashion demands of the time thus avoiding wastage and resultantly loss.
There are several methods prevalent or piece dyeing.
Beck dyeing - Fabric is in rope form
Jig dyeing - The fabric in jig dyeing is held on rollers at full width rather

than in rope
Pad dyeing - Padding is also done while holding the fabric at full width.
The fabric is passed through a trough having dye in it. Then it is passed
between two heavy rollers which force the dye into the cloth and squeeze
out the excess dye. Then it is passed through a heat chamber for letting the
dye to set. After that it is passed through washer, rinser and dryer for
completing the process.
Jet dyeing - Fabric is placed in a heated tube where jets of dye solution
are forced through it at high pressures.

A. Beck Dyeing

B. Jig Dyeing

C. Pad Dyeing

D. Jet Dyeing

Beam Dyeing

Garment dyeing
When the finished textile product

such as hosiery or sweaters are

dyed, it is called garment dyeing. A
number of garments are packed
loosely in a nylon net and put into a
dyestuff filled tub with a motor driven
paddle. The dye is thrown upon the
garments by the moving paddles'
effect.

Pad Batch Dyeing machine

(Semi-continuous)

Pad Batch Dyeing machine is one of the widely used technique for semi-continuous
dyeing process. It is mainly used in the dyeing of cellulosic fibre like cotton or viscose
(knit and woven fabric) with reactive dyes. The characteristics of this machine is simple,
and flexible and a substantial reduction in capital investment for equipment.

Schematic layout of a pad-batch:

Pad Batch Dyeing machine

(Continuous)
Pad-steam process
(continuous)
Thermosol process
(continuous)
Pad-dry process
(continuous)

Special Features of Pad Batch

Dyeing Process:
Significant cost and waste reduction as compared to other conventional dyeing
processes.
Excellent wet fastness properties.
A uniform dye quality is achieved with even color absorbency and color fastness.
As compared to rope dyeing, Pad batch dyeing produces much lower defect levels
In pad batch dyeing, qualities like high shade reliability and repeatability are
common. This is because of high reactivity dyes with rapid fixation rate and
stability.

Pad-batch (Semi continuous)

Pad- steam (Continuous)

Pigment Dyeing

The possibility of combining

dyeing and finishing exists with
pigment coloration. Products
must be selected so that finish
and binder react under same
conditions
of
pH
and/or
temperature.

Pigment Dyeing
Advantages
Pigment coloration is economical because of
limited number of processing steps.
Blends can be dyed a uniform shade with one
operation applicable to all fibers.
Pigment coloration has an extensive color
range and high light fastness.
Pigment coloration has satisfactory wash
fastness.

Pigment Dyeing
Disadvantages
Heavy shades crock badly. Light shades may
wet crock.
Pigment coloration is normally applied by
padding.
Pigment adversely affects hand. The large
amount of binder
required may stiffen fabric. This is most
noticeable on very thin fabrics.
Pigment coloration may have sticking or
buildup on pad rolls.
Migration (uneven coloration) may occur if
drying is variable or pickup is high.

Optical Brighteners
Optical brighteners, also called Fluorescent Brighteners or
Fluorescent Brightening Agents (FBA) are colorless dyes
that work by emitting visible light when exposed to invisible
ultra-violet light.
They are used to make white or light-colored fabrics appear
brighter.
Mostly bleached white fabrics are treated with these
brighteners.
Fabrics and garments that are truly prepared for dyeing
should not contain brighteners. Optical brighteners can
interfere with some dyes by competing for the "dye sites" on
the fibers.

Optical Brighteners
Optical brighteners have the property of absorbing
ultraviolet UV) light and re-emitting energy in the form of
weaker energy, i.e. visible light (violet-blue light) so that the
yellow color of the material will appear white.
The chemical structures of these agents contain an aliphatic
carbon-carbon double bond, which is sensitive to sunlight,
oxidation, weathering, etc.
Therefore, these compounds do not have good fastness
properties, and tend to loose their ability to absorb UV light
over short periods of time in use.
The presence of high concentrations or improper
application or cheaper quality of fluorescent brighteners
could lead to yellowing of the material instead of whitening.