PETROLEUM GENERATION,

MIGRATION & ACCUMULATION

HARINDAR UPADHYAY
KESHAVA DEVA MALVIYA INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM
EXPLORATION

CENOZOIC:65.5-0.015
MESOZOIC:251-65.5
PALEOZOIC:542-251
PRECAMBRIAN:542-2500
ARCHEAN:2500-3600

 India has vast land

areas covered with
sedimentary rocks.
Geologically they
are subdivided into
26 sedimentary
basins covering
about 3.14 million
sq. km.

Indian Sedimentary Basins

Out of 26 Basins 7 are petroliferous
1889: Assam Shelf
1967: Rajasthan Basin
1973: A&AA FB
1958: Cambay Basin
1980: KG Basin
1974: Mumbai Offshore
1985: Cauvery Basin

What is Petroleum ?

A thick, flammable, yellow-to-black mixture of

gaseous, liquid, and solid hydrocarbons that
occurs naturally beneath the earth's surface,
can be separated into fractions including natural
gas, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, fuel and
lubricating oils, paraffin wax, and asphalt and is
used as raw material for a wide variety of
derivative products.

Occurrence of Petroleum

The occurrence of petroleum is widespread but very uneven.

In some rocks it occurs only in infinitesimal amounts,
measured in parts per million (ppm) or even in parts per
billion (ppb), whereas rocks of other areas contain enormous
accumulations measured in billions of barrels.

Petroleum occurs on all the continents of the world,

although some continents or much richer in petroleum than
others. And it occurs in all the geologic systems from
Precambrian to Recent, though some systems are notably
more prolific than others.

Some petroleum occurrences are visible as outcrops at the

surface of the ground, however from the standpoint of
petroleum geologist and industry the underground or
subsurface occurrences are more important and exploited
only as the result of drilling.

Mode of Occurrence

Surface occurrences such as seepage, springs,

exudates of bitumen, mud volcanoes, inspissated
deposits, vug and vein fillings and various kinds of
oil or kerogen shales.

Subsurface
occurrences,
including
minor
showings of oil and gas, pools, fields, and
provinces.

SURFACE OCCURENCES

Section through a bituminous black sandstone deposits

(mbs) in the Pismo Formation (Tpi), Pliocene-Miocene,
near Edna, San Luis Obispo County, California.
The
asphaltic sands are underlain by the Montery shales (Tms)

SURFACE
OCCURENCES

Sketch of solid petroleum

dikes and Vein fillings

CONCEPTS

Petroleum Generation

Source Rocks: definition

A petroleum source rock is a sedimentary rock, that contains
sufficient organic matter to generate and expel economic
quantities of oil and/or gas upon burial.
The organic matter in a source rock is called Kerogen
Source rocks are often referred to as black shales or hot
shales or paper shales.

Environments of Source Rock Deposition

Type I/III

Type I
Type III

Type III

Type I/III

Type II/III
Type II/I

Type II
Type II/III

Type II/III

Type II

Fundamentals of source rock formation

Main Forces
Production of Organic Matter (Biological
productivity)

Light
Nutrients
Oxygenated surface waters
Area
Preservation of Organic Matter
Water depth
Anoxic bottom waters
Sedimentation rate
Burial rate

The Organic Matter in Sedimentary Rocks is

grouped into Bitumen and Kerogen
The term BITUMEN describes the organic constituent
of the sedimentary rocks that is fusible and soluble in
common organic solvents.

Total Organic Carbon

The term KEROGEN describes the organic constituent

of the sedimentary rocks that is neither soluble in nonoxidizing aqueous solvents (acids and bases) nor in
common Organic Solvents.
Bitumen/Initial Oil
Reactive Kerogen
Inert Kerogen (No Hydrocarbon Potential)

Organic Richness & transformation of SOM

Principal Factors
Responsible for
Organic Richness are:

Primary

productivity
Dilution
Preservation

Types of Kerogen
Type I kerogens follow the maturation
track of lacustrine oil shales
Track of type II kerogens is characteristic
of mainly marine but also some lacustrine
Track of type III kerogen is similar to van
Krevelens original coalification track
Type IV kerogen denotes
reworked/refractory OM

Any petroleum source rock may be categorized as one of

the four end types based on the H/C versus O/C ratios

Source Rock Types

Kerogen
Type

TOC
(%w/w of
rock)

Initial
Potential

Hydrogen
Index

(S2, mg
HC/g
rock)

HI (mg
HC/g TOC)

IV

0 0.5

0 2.5

<50

Poor

III

0.5 1

2.5 5

50-200

Fair

II/III

1-2

5 10

200-300

Good

II

2 -4

10 20

300-600

Very Good

>4

>20

>600

Excellent

Hydrocarbon
Yield

Kerogen Types

TOC 2.12 WT.%

TOC .38 WT.%

Reactive Carbon only contributes for petroleum generation and it is only

a fraction of Total Organic Carbon (TOC as %w/w rock)

Thermal Maturity Measurement

General Criteria for Thermal Maturity of Sedimentary OM

Rock Eval Tmax
(0C)

Vitrinite
Reflectance
(%VRo)

Thermal Maturity

<435

0.25-0.55

Immature

435-445

0.55-0.65

Early Mature

445-450

0.65-0.9

Peak

450-470

0.9- 1.3

Late Mature

>470

>1.3

Post Mature

CONCEPTS

Petroleum Migration

Petroleum Migration Definitions

Migration is the process, whereby hydrocarbons
move from source rocks to traps.
Migration is divided into four categories:
Primary migration The process of loss of
hydrocarbons from the source rock.
Secondary migration Migration from source
to reservoir rock in trap configuration along a
carrier system. Including the migration within
the reservoir rock itself.
Tertiary migration Migration to the surface,
either from the reservoir or source rock
(dismigration).
Remigration Migration from one reservoir
system position through an intervening section
into another reservoir position (trap) in the same
or a different reservoir.

Key factors of HC migration

Why do hydrocarbons migrate??
Hydrocarbons are lighter than water buoyancy
How do hydrocarbons migrate??
Hydrocarbons migrate as a separate phase from the
higher potential to a lower potential on the direct way
topography driven

Migration into the reservoir

England, 1990

Migrating fluids follow the path of least resistance: i.e. Lowest capillary
entry pressure, usually equated with highest permeability.

CONCEPTS

Petroleum Accumulation

The Reservoir

It is a porous and permeable lithological unit or set of

units that holds the hydrocarbon reserves. The common
types include sandstone and limestone.

The porosity may be primary or it might be secondary as

groundwater dissolves pores in the rock (limestone) or as
minerals undergo alteration or may have formed due to
tectonic activities.

Besides porosity, there must be high permeability i.e. the

connectedness of pores that allows fluid to move easily
through the reservoir rock.

Permeability, porosity in combination with geologic

structure are all of interest to petroleum geologists as it
provides sites of hydrocarbon accumulation under
favourable conditions.

Sandstone Porosity

Porosity Nomenclature
Mainly two types:
Primary porosity :
Intergranular (or interparticle/ intercrystalline) &
organic porosity
Secondary porosity
Dissolution of detrital grains and cements
Fracturing after cementation
Vugs, molds, fenestral solution channels in carbonates

Vuggy
Porosity

Moldic
Porosity

Solution channel
Porosity

RESERVOIR ROCK

CC#21

CC#20

Reservoir architecture
Good communication

Isolated sands

This 3D reservoir architecture

model shows amalgamated
(connected) sands as well as
isolated sand bodies.

Seal or cap rock

It is a unit with low permeability that impedes the

escape of hydrocarbons from the reservoir rock.
Common seals include EVAPORITES, CHALKS and
SHALE.
Analysis of seals involves assessment of their
thickness and extent, such that their effectiveness
can be quantified.

Trap

It is the stratigraphic or structural feature that ensures the

juxtaposition of reservoir and seal such that hydrocarbons
remain trapped in the subsurface, rather than escaping and
being lost.
The common types are Structural, Stratigraphic and
Combination Traps.
1.
2.

3.
4.

Structural Traphas been produced by deformation of the

beds after they were deposited, either by folding or faulting.
Stratigraphic Trapis formed by changes in the nature of
the rocks themselves, or in their layering, the only structural
effect being a tilt to allow the oil to migrate through the
reservoir.
Combination Trap is formed partly by structural and partly
by stratigraphic effects, but not entirely due to either.
Hydrodynamic traps are due to water flowing through the
reservoir and holding the oil in places where it would not
otherwise be trapped.

Normal faults

Thrust faults

Structural
Traps
Salt diapir

Mud diapir

Listric faults
Basement high

Stratigraphic traps
Reef complex

Turbidites

Fluviatile point bars

Offshore sand bar

Truncation trap

Onlap trap

Petroleum System Processes

Petroleum System Elements

Gas
Cap

Entrapment
Accumulation

Oil
Water

Seal Rock
Reservoir
Rock

Migration
120 F

80 C
Oil window

150 C

Generation

Source
Rock

350 F
24803

Main parameters affecting accumulations

Seal

Reservoir

Thickness
Mineralogy
Permeability
Brittleness
Pressure

Accumulation

Structure

Thickness
Mineralogy
Porosity
Permeability
Pressure

Size
Relief
Type

Hydrocarbon
Charge

Source rock quality

Source rock volume
Temperature history
Migraton path

Thank You

Physical and Chemical Properties of Petroleum

Density/ API
Gravity
Pour point
Viscosity
Wax
content

Pour Point is the temperature below which an oil

becomebecomes semi-solid and will no longer flow
freely.
Viscosity denotes the ability to flow. The time
required for a specified volume of oil to flow through
a hole or a capillary tube of definite size under
controlled temperature conditions.
Referred to solid n-alkane (>C25) fraction recovered
from petroleum.

Classification of Crude OilsAPI Gravity of

Petroleum Compounds
Condensates 550
Light Oils 31.1
Medium Gravity Oils: 22.3
to 31.1
Heavy Oils: 10 to 22.3
Extra Heavy Oils 100API

CONCEPTS

Petroleum Systems
THE

PETROLEUM

GENETIC

RELATION

SYSTEM

EMPHASIZES

BETWEEN

THE

PARTICULAR

SOURCE ROCK AND THE RESULTING PETROLEUM

ACCUMULATION.

PETROLEUM SYSTEM
A

PETROLEUM SYSTEM IS DEFINED AS A NATURAL

SYSTEM THAT ENCOMPASSES A POD OF ACTIVE

SOURCE ROCK AND RELATED OIL AND GAS WHICH
INCLUDES ALL THE GEOLOGIC ELEMENTS AND
PROCESSES

THAT

ARE

ESSENTIAL

HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATION TO EXIST.

FOR

Very large tar sands occur in geologic settings which

are unconventional by accepted standards, yet they are
explainable in the light of modern knowledge of
generation,migration, and degradation of oil in
sedimentary basins. This fact stresses the need to
understand, in space and time,the origin,movements,
pathways, and abundance of the oil crop in conjunction
with
geologic
history
in
any
given
basin.
-G.J.Demaison

PETROLEUM SYSTEM
CRITICAL MOMENT IS THAT POINT IN TIME SELECTED BY THE
INVESTIGATOR THAT BEST DEPICTS THE GENERATIONMIGRATION-ACCUMULATION OF MOST HYDROCARBONS IN A
PETROLEUM SYSTEM.
GEOGARAPHIC EXTENT OF THE PETROLEUM SYSTEM AT
CRITICAL MOMENT IS DEFINED BY A LINE THAT
CIRCUMSCRIBES THE POD OF ACTIVE SOURCE ROCK AND
INCLUDES ALL THE DISCOVERED PETROLEUM SHOWS,SEEPS
AND ACCUMULATIONS THAT ORIGINATED FROM THE POD.

PETROLEUM SYSTEM

A PETROLEUM SYSTEM CAN BE IDENTIFIED AT THREE

LEVELS OF CERTAINITY:
- KNOWN (!)
- HYPOTHETICAL (.)
- SPECULATIVE (?)
A PETROLEUM SYSTEM INCLUDES THE SOURCE ROCK
FOLLOWED BY THE NAME OF THE MAJOR RESERVOIR ROCK
AND THEN THE SYMBOL EXPRESSING THE LEVEL OF
CERTAINITY.