Rockford

Powertrain
Training Workshop

Process
Capability
and Cpk

Training materials, reference

documents, and functional SPC
templates are available free on
the Rockford Powertrain web
site. Go to:
www.rockfordpowertrain.com/suppli
er

Process Capability
Enables successful manufacturing and
sales
Prevents scrap, sorting, rework
Allows jobs to run well
Has major impact on cost and schedule

Process Capability
is the ability of a process
to make a feature
within its tolerance.

Everything Varies
(and the variation can be seen if we measure precisely enough)

Heights
Weights
Lengths
Widths
Diameters
Wattage
Horsepower
Miles per Gallon

Pressure
Roughness
Strength
Conductivity
Loudness
Speed
Torque
Etc. etc. etc.

Eli Whitney in 1798

Won a U.S. Military contract to supply 10,000 guns
Reduced variation and created interchangeable parts for
assembly and service by:
Installing powered factory machinery
Using specialized fixtures, tools, jigs, templates, and end-stops
Creating drawings, routings, operations & training

Manufacturing in the 21st Century

International competition to provide defect-free products
at competitive cost
Reducing variation and providing interchangeable parts
for assembly and service by:
Using machine tools
Using specialized fixtures, tools, jigs, templates, and end-stops
Using drawings, routings, operations & training

Graphing the tolerance and a measurement

.512 .513 .514 .515 . 516 .517 .518 .519 .520 .521 .522 .523 .524 .525 .526
.527 .528

Its useful to see the tolerance and the part measurement on a graph.
Suppose that:

Graphing the tolerance and a measurement

Specification
Limit MIN
.512 .513 .514 .515 . 516 .517 .518 .519 .520 .521 .522 .523 .524 .525 .526
.527 .528

Its useful to see the tolerance and the part measurement on a graph.
Suppose that:
--the tolerance is .515

Graphing the tolerance and a measurement

Specification
Limit MIN

Specification
Limit MAX

.512 .513 .514 .515 . 516 .517 .518 .519 .520 .521 .522 .523 .524 .525 .526
.527 .528

Its useful to see the tolerance and the part measurement on a graph.
Suppose that:
--the tolerance is .515 to .525

Graphing the tolerance and a measurement

Specification
Limit MIN

Specification
Limit MAX

.512 .513 .514 .515 . 516 .517 .518 .519 .520 .521 .522 .523 .524 .525 .526
.527 .528

Its useful to see the tolerance and the part measurement on a graph.
Suppose that:
--the tolerance is .515 to .525
--and an individual part is measured at .520.

Graphing the tolerance and measurements

Specification
Limit MIN

X
X
X
X

Specification
Limit MAX

.512 .513 .514 .515 . 516 .517 .518 .519 .520 .521 .522 .523 .524 .525 .526
.527 .528

Suppose we made and measured several

more units, and they were all EXACTLY the
same!
We wouldnt have very many part problems!

Graphing the tolerance and measurements

Specification
Limit MIN

XX
XXX
XXXXX
XXXXXXX

Specification
Limit MAX

.512 .513 .514 .515 . 516 .517 .518 .519 .520 .521 .522 .523 .524 .525 .526
.527 .528

In the real world, units are NOT EXACTLY the

same. Everything VARIES.
The question isnt IF units vary.
Its how much, when, and why.

The normal bell curve

XX
XXX
XXXX
XXXX
XXXXX
XXXXX

XX
XXX
XXXX
XXXX
XXXXX
XXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXX

XXXXXX

Widths, heights, depths,

thicknesses, weights, speeds,
XXXXXX
strengths, and many other types of measurements, when
XXXXXXX
charted as a histogram,
often form the shape of a bell.*
XXXXXXXX

A perfect bell, like

a perfect circle, doesnt occur in
XXXXXXXXX
nature, but many processes
XXXXXXXXXXXare close enough to make
the bell curve useful.
(*A number of common industrial measurements, such as flatness and straightness, do
NOT tend to distribute in a bell shape; their proper statistical analysis is performed
using models other than the bell curve.)

What is a standard deviation?

Typical distanceXX
from the center:
XXX
-1 standard
deviation
XXXX
XXXX
XXXXX
XXXXX

XX
XXX
XXXX
XXXX
XXXXX
XXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXX
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXX

Typical distance
from the center:
+1 standard
deviation

XXXXXX

If we measure the DISTANCE from the CENTER of the bell

XXXXXX
to each individual measurement that makes up the bell curve,
we can find a TYPICAL
DISTANCE.
XXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX

The most commonly used statistic to estimate this distance is

the
XXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXX
Standard Deviation (also
called Sigma).
Because of the natural shape of the bell curve, the area of +1 to
1 standard deviations includes about 68% of the curve.

How much of the curve is included in how many standard

deviations?

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

From
From
From
From

1
2
3
4

to
to
to
to

+1
+2
+3
+4

is
is
is
is

about
about
about
about

0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6

68% of the bell curve.

95%
99.73%
99.99%

(NOTE: We usually show the bell from 3 to +3 to make it easier to draw,

but in concept, the tails of the bell get very thin and go on forever.)

What is Cpk? It is a measure of how

well
a process
LSL is within a specification.
A

USL

Specification
Limit

Specification
Limit
X

UCL

Cpk = A divided by B
A = Distance from process mean to closest spec limit
B = 3 Standard Deviations (also called 3 Sigma)
A bigger Cpk is better because fewer units will be beyond spec.
(A bigger A and a smaller B are better.)

Process Capability is the ability of a

process to fit its output within the
tolerances.

Specification
Limit

Cpk =
A divided by
B

Specification
Limit

a LARGER A
and a SMALLER B
means BETTER Process Capability

An Analogy

A
B

Specification
Limit

Cpk =
A divided by
B

Specification
Limit

Analogy:
The bell curve is your automobile.
The spec limits are the edges of your garage door.
If A = B, you are hitting the frame of your garage door with your car.

How can we make Cpk (A divided by B)

better?

A
B

Specification
Limit

1.
2.
3.
4.

Cpk =
A divided by
B

Specification
Limit

Design the product so a wider tolerance is functional (robust design)

Choose equipment and methods for a good safety margin (process capability
Correctly adjust, but only when needed (control)
Discover ways to narrow the natural variation (improvement)

What does a very good Cpk do for us?

A
B

Specification
Limit

Mean

This Cpk is
about 2.
Very good!

Specification
Limit

This process is producing good units with a good safety

margin.
Note that when Cpk = 2, our process mean is 6 standard
deviations from the nearest spec, so we say it has 6 Sigma
Capability.

What does a problem Cpk look like?

A
B

Specification
Limit

This Cpk is just

slightly greater
than 1. Not
good!
Specification
Limit

This process is in danger of producing some defects.

It is too close to the specification limits.
(Remember: the bell curve tail goes further than B
we only show the bell to 3-sigma to make it easier to draw.)

What does a very bad Cpk look like?

A
B

Specification
Limit

This Cpk is less

than 1. We
desire a
minimum of
1.33 and
ultimately we
want 2 or more.
Specification
Limit

A significant part of the tail is hanging out beyond the spec limits.
This process is producing scrap, rework, and customer rejects.
Notice that if distance A approaches zero
the Cpk would approach zero, and
the process would become 50% defective!

Free software is available to draw a histogram

and calculate average, standard deviation, and Cpk.

Located at: www.rockfordpowertrain.com/supplier

What Six Sigma Philosophy did Motorola

teach its suppliers in the 1980s?

Specification
Limit

Specification
Limit

In the 1980s, Motorola achieved dramatic quality improvements

and won the USAs Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award.
Motorola began seminars teaching its Six Sigma Philosophy to
its suppliers, and to other companies.
The following few slides depict some original messages from that
time.

Robust Design part of the original Six Sigma

Known
Existing
Process
New Product
Specification
Limit

New Product
Specification
Limit

The new design above has tolerances set tight to a known existing
process, while the one below has tolerances that allow six sigma
capability.
Products have thousands of tolerances. They result from choices about
shapes, thicknesses, grades of materials, and grades of components.
Robust design is NOT about permitting sloppiness. It requires very
smart engineering to allow ample Known
tolerances AND achieve satisfactory
Existing
function.
Process

New Product
Specification
Limit

New Product
Specification
Limit

Robust Design part of the original Six Sigma

Known
Existing
Process
New Product
Specification
Limit

New Product
Specification
Limit

CAUTION:
Suppliers must negotiate the widening of tolerances BEFORE competitive
bids, quotations, and acceptance of orders. Competitive bids are
commitments to meet all existing tolerances. Failure to meet customer
tolerances means failure to meet contract requirements. Prevent
breaches of contract.
Known
Existing
Process

New Product
Specification
Limit

New Product
Specification
Limit

Robust Processes part of the original Six Sigma

New Process
choice X
New Product
Specification
Limit

New Product
Specification
Limit

The process above varies so much that it fills the design tolerance. The
different process below has good repeatability for six sigma capability.
Its a false-economy to choose an allegedly lower-cost process that uses
up all tolerance. The resulting scrap, rework, rejections, recalls, damage
to reputation, crisis communications, and fire-fighting cancel out the
alleged economy. Robust Process requires skillful insight to choose
ways to make defect-free product at the lowest real cost.
New Process
choice Y
New Product
Specification
Limit

New Product
Specification
Limit

6 Sigma Philosophy Not Just The Shop Floor

Getting every person capable and in self control

Achieving delivery and project deadlines

Meeting budgets & financial goals
Administrative tasks
Design work
Purchasing/sourcing
Special projects
Security and Safety
Health and Environmental
Legal compliance
Anything that can be
defined and measured

Getting every person capable and in self control

Defined & Understood

Requirements

The 3
Requisites
Of Self-Control
Ability to
Measure Results

Process
Capability and
Ability to Control

Summary:

To call a process capable typically requires at

least a Cpk of 1.33 (+ and - 4 standard
deviations within tolerance)

Many customers desire a Cpk of 2.0 (+ and - 6

standard deviations within tolerance)

Organizations need:
1. Feasible designs
2. Capable processes
3. Process self-control

Conclusion:
Process Capability:

Yes:

No:

too wide

Yes:

No:
potentially capable
if re-centered

Yes:

No:
potentially capable
if re-centered

Review Question 1

What is Process Capability?

Review Question 2

How is the process average calculated

or estimated?

Review Question 3

What is a Standard Deviation?

(also known as a sigma)

Review Question 4

What is Cpk used for?

Review Question 5

Suppose that a feature tolerance is .750/.760,

and the process average is .759,
and the process standard deviation is .002
is the process satisfactory and capable?

Review Question 6
Suppose that a torque tolerance is 25 foot
pounds minimum,
and the process average is 26 foot pounds,
and the process standard deviation is 3 foot
pounds
is the process capable?

Review Question 7
Suppose that a diameter tolerance is 8.010 to
8.060,
and the process average is 8.041,
and the process standard deviation is .002
is the process capable?

Review Question 8
Fred is cutting an outside diameter on a lathe
and the diameter is easily adjustable.
The diameter tolerance is 5.050 to 5.090,
the process average is 5.090,
and the process standard deviation is .001
What is the Cpk?
What should Fred do with the process?

Review Question 9
Joe is boring an inside diameter on a lathe.
The diameter tolerance is 1.980 to 2.020.
Joe has measured three random samples at
2.005, 2.004, and 2.006.
Estimate the process average.
Estimate the standard deviation (best guess).
Estimate whether the process can be capable.

Review Question 10
TechCorp is demonstrating a new high-precision
grease dispenser machine.
TechCorp claims that they can dispense grease all day
with an accuracy of plus or minus half an ounce.
During the demo, ten samples of grease in a row were
dispensed (in ounces) as follows:
2.3, 2.0, 2.6, 3.0, 2.1, 2.7, 2.9, 2.5, 2.0, 2.4
Based on the sample data, evaluate TechCorps
claim that they can dispense grease all day with an
accuracy of plus or minus half an ounce.

Quiz Question 1
True or False?
Process Capability can be defined as
the ability of a process
to make a feature
within its tolerance.

Quiz Question 2
True of False?
We can estimate the process average
by taking a set of sample measurements,
adding them up, and dividing by the
number of measurements.

Quiz Question 3
True or False?
A Standard Deviation can be thought of
as the typical distance of the
measurements from the average;
about 68% of the individuals will fall within
+ or 1 standard deviation of a bell curve.

Quiz Question 4
True or False?
When using Cpk, the goal is to keep the
Cpk value as low as possible.

Quiz Question 5
True or False?
If the feature tolerance is .350/.360,
and the process average is .351,
and the process standard deviation is .004
then the process should be called capable.

Quiz Question 6
True or False?
If a pressure tolerance is 250 PSI minimum,
and the process average is 260 PSI,
and the process standard deviation is 4 PSI,
then the process is capable.

Quiz Question 7
True or False?
If a height tolerance is 7.010 to 7.060,
and the process average is 7.042,
and the process standard deviation is .002
then the process is capable.

Quiz Question 8
True or False?
If Larry is cutting an O.D. and the diameter is
easily adjustable, the tolerance is 4.055 to
4.095, the process average is 4.095, and
the standard deviation is .001
then Larry should be able to make the
process fully capable by adjusting the
process.

Quiz Question 9
True or False?
If Jill is boring an I.D. with a tolerance of 1.475
to 1.525, and has measured three samples
at 1.501, 1.500, and 1.499
then the average of the samples is 1.501,
the standard deviation is probably larger
than .010, and the Cpk is probably zero.

Quiz Question 10
True or False?
If HiTechCo is demonstrating a new high-precision
surface coating machine, and claims that their
machine can coat all day with an accuracy of plus or
minus .010 inches, and during the demo the coating
thickness readings (in inches) were as follows:
.027, .028, .027, .029, .028, .029, .028, .029, .028, .027
then the sample readings suggest that HiTechCo
might be telling the truth about being able to hold plus
or minus .010 inches.

Appendix
Cpk and PPM
(Parts Per Million Defective)

Cpk: Avoid confusion and pitfalls

DOES IT VARY? Cpk varies when sampled,

because its calculated from the average and the
standard deviation, both of which are estimated
from samples.

CARROTS AND STICKS? Giving rewards or

reprimands based on minor, short-term
fluctuations of Cpk amounts to a lottery.
Watch real trends.

MAKE A PLANT AVERAGE CPK? Its unhelpful

to report a plant average Cpk of multiple
characteristics and products, because:
1. Cpk values depend on each chosen tolerance
2. An okay average Cpk could come from 50%
good and 50% bad numbers -- highly
misleading!

What is PPM (defect Parts Per Million)?

A
B
The defect PPM
is the area
outside
spec limits

Specification
Limit

Specification
Limit

PPM is an estimate of the portion that is beyond the spec limit.

If we know the Cpk
--we can look up the PPM out of spec in a statistics book table, or
--we can use software, such as Microsoft Excel, to calculate the PPM.
(REMEMBER that the tail of the bell goes out further than it is drawn.)

What is the 6-Sigma Philosophy

1.5-Sigma Shift?
Unfavorable
process shift
of 1.5
standard
deviations

Specification
Limit

Specification
Limit

The 6 Sigma Philosophy includes the premise that real-world processes

move around to some extent, and produce more defects than a static
process. As an arbitrary convention, this is represented as an unfavorable
shift of 1.5 sigma in Parts Per Million tables for Six Sigma programs. The
intention is to plan conservatively.
(This means that the PPM vs. Sigma charts published for 6-Sigma Programs show
higher defect rates than the similar but traditional Z-tables in statistical textbooks. )

The following page is a table showing the

relationships among the following:
Cpk,
How Many Sigma Capability,
Parts Per Million according to traditional statistical
tables
Parts Per Million taking into account the 6-Sigma
Philosophy of an unfavorable shift in
the mean of 1.5 Sigma

Cpk, PPM, and "Six Sigma"

Cpk
(Defined as
distance from
process mean to
the nearest spec,
divided by 3
Standard
Deviations)

"How Many
Within Spec
Sigma
(Process Perfectly
Capability?"
Centered,
Distance of
Both Tails
Process Mean to
Considered)
Spec Limit in
Good Units Per
Standard Deviations
Million

PPM of the Bell

Curve
Out of Spec
(Process Perfectly
Centered,
Both Tails
Considered)

PPM of the Bell

Curve
Out of Spec
(Process Not
Centered,
Only One Tail
Considered)

PPM of the Bell

Curve
Out of Spec
The column AT
with Six-Sigma
LEFT equates to 1
Philosophy
defective out of how of 1.5 Standard
many total?
Deviation Penalty
for Anticipated
Unfavorable
Process Mean Drift

1,000,000

500,000

0.17

0.5

382,925

617,075

308,538

0.33

682,689

317,311

158,655

0.5

1.5

866,386

133,614

66,807

15

500,000

0.67

954,500

45,500

22,750

44

308,538

0.83

2.5

987,581

12,419

6,210

161

158,655

997,300

2,700

1,350

741

66,807

1.17

3.5

999,535

465

233

4,298

22,750

1.33

999,937

63

32

31,560

6,210

1.5

4.5

999,993.2

6.8

3.4

294,048

1,350

1.67

999,999.4

0.6

0.3

3,483,046

233

1.83

5.5

999,999.96

0.04

0.02

52,530,944

32

999,999.998

0.002

0.001

1,009,976,693

3.4

2.17

6.5

999,999.99992

0.00008

0.00004

24,778,276,273

0.3