Defining Development

The science of human development

- seeks to understand how and why people of all
ages and circumstances change or remain the
same over time.

Defining Development
multidirectional
multicontextual
Growth is

multicultural
multidisciplinary
plastic

Understanding How and Why

Scientific method
Way to answer questions that requires empirical
research and data-based conclusions.

Five basic steps of the scientific method

Begin with curiosity and pose a question.

Develop a hypothesis.
Test the hypothesis.
Draw conclusions.
Report the results.

The Scientific Method

A sixth and crucial step-replication-is often needed
before the scientific community accepts
conclusions.
Replication
Repetition of a study, using different participants

Process, Not Proof

Built into the scientific methodin questions, hypotheses, tests, and

replicationis a passion for possibilities, especially unexpected
ones.

The Nature-Nurture Debate

Nature
General term for the traits, capacities, and limitations
that each individual inherits genetically from his or her
parents at the moment of conception

Nurture
General term for all the environmental influences that
affect development after an individual is conceived

The Life-Span Perspective

Life-span perspective
Approach to the study of human development that
takes into account all phases of life, not just
childhood or adulthood.

Age Ranges for Different Stages of Development

The Life-Span Perspective

Development is multidirectional.
Over time, human characteristics change in every direction.

Several major theorists describe stages of development

(discontinuous process):
Freud, Erickson, Piaget.
Others view development as a continuous process.

Patterns of Developmental Growth

Life-Span Perspective
Development is multidirectional.
Critical period
Time when a particular type of developmental growth
(in body or behavior) must happen if it is ever going to
happen

Sensitive period
Time when a certain type of development is most
likely to happen or happens most easily, although it
may still happen later with more difficulty

The Life-Span Perspective

Development is multicontextual.
Ecological-systems approach
In the study of human development, the person
should be considered in all the contexts and
interactions that constitute a life.

The Life-Span Perspective

Development is multicontextual.
Ecological systems (Bronfenbrenner)
Each person is affected by many social contexts
and interpersonal interactions.
Three nested levels surround individuals and affect
them.
Approach later named bioecological theory.

The Ecological Model

The Life-Span Perspective

Development Is
multicontextual.
Historical context
Cohort: All persons born
within a few years of one
another; group defined
by the shared age of its
members
Example: Attitudes
about same-sex
marriage

The Life-Span Perspective

Development is multicontextual.
Socioeconomic context
Affected by national and historical texts
Is more critical in some jurisdictions than others
Includes pervasive context of SES

Socioeconomic status (SES)

Persons position in society as determined by income,
wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence

The Life-Span Perspective

Development Is multicultural.
Culture
Patterns of behavior passed from one generation to
the next

Social construction
Idea based on shared perceptions, not on objective
reality
Many age-related terms, such as childhood,
adolescence, yuppie, and senior citizen, are social
constructions.

Socioeconomic Status and Human Development

Globally and locally, socioeconomic status is one of the most accurate predictors
of health. Poverty rates and level of education almost always correlate with
health indicators (such as mortality) in just about every phase of the life span.

Global Trends

The United Nations categorizes nations as more, less, or least developed, based
on economic growth. As indicated here, a nations economic status correlates
closely with birth rate, which itself correlates with levels of female literacy.
This is a rough guide. For example, fewer newborns die in their first year in the
United States than in nations with high poverty rates, but the U.S. infant mortality
rate is higher than 33 other nations, some (such as Portugal and Greece) with
lower average income.

Infant Mortality in the U.S.

About two-thirds of infant deaths in the United States occur within the first
28 days of life. The single biggest cause of infant death in the United
States is preterm birth.

The Life-Span Perspective

Development Is Multicultural.
Difference-equals-deficit error
Mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is
necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that
meet the standard

Vygotsky: Guided participation

Is universal process used by mentors to teach cultural
knowledge, skills, and habits
Can occur through school instruction, but more often
it happens informally
Entails culturally different goals

The Life-Span Perspective

Development Is
multicultural.
Ethnic group
People whose ancestors
were born in the same
region and who often share
a language, culture, and
religion

Race
Group of people who are
regarded by themselves or
by others as distinct from
other groups on the basis of
physical appearance

The Life-Span Perspective

Development Is multidisciplinary.
All important human characteristics are epigenetic.
Referring to the effects of environmental forces on the
expression of an individuals, or a species, genetic
inheritance

Some epigenetic influences impede development;

others facilitate it.
The inevitable epigenetic interaction between genes
and the environment (nature and nurture) is illustrated
on the next slide.

An Epigenetic Model of Development

Notice that there are as many arrows going down as there

are going up, at all levels.
Although development begins with genes at conception, it
requires that all four factors interact .

Red Means Stop

At top, the red areas on
this PET scan show
abnormally low
metabolic activity and
blood flow in a
depressed persons
brain, in contrast to the
normal brain at bottom.

The Life-Span Perspective

Multidisciplinary
research on depression
Depression
Is partly genetic,
biochemical, and
neurological
Is also developmental
Leads to better
treatment
Broadens and deepens
the scientific perspective

Links to depression

Low serotonin
Caregiver depression
SAD
Malnutrition
Anthropology
Diseases
Disruptive social interaction
Father absence
Siblings
Poverty
Low cognitive skills

Why?

Interpretation of these data depends on the interpreters assumption. The low

rates in Japan could be caused by something wonderful in Japanese culture
close human bonds, for instance. Or it could be something negative
repression of emotions, perhaps, which would reduce the rate of diagnosed
depression, but not the rate of actual depression. As with the results of most
research, data often raise new questions.

The Life-Span Perspective

Development Is plastic.
Plasticity denotes two complementary aspects of
development.
Human traits can be molded
People maintain a certain durability of identity

Dynamic systems: Human development is viewed

as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction.
Between the physical and emotional being and
Between the person and every aspect of his or her
environment, including the family and society

The Life-Span Perspective

Development is plastic.
Dynamic systems approach
Builds on the multidirectional, multicontextual,
multicultural, and multidisciplinary nature of
development
Urges consideration of all the interrelated aspects,
every social and cultural factor, over days and years

The Life-Span Perspective

Development is plastic.
Plasticity emphasizes that people can and do change,
that predictions are not always accurate
More accurate predictions could improve prevention
of developmental problems.

Three insights advance benefits of prediction.

Nature and nurture
Sensitive periods
Differential sensitivity

Using the Scientific Method

Scientific Observation
Requires the researcher to record behavior
systematically and objectively
May be done in a naturalistic setting such as a home,
school, or other public place
May be done in a laboratory

Using the Scientific Method

Statistical measures often used to analyze research results

Effect size
Significance
Cost-benefit analysis
Odds ratio
Factor analysis
Meta-analysis

Who Participates?
For all these measures, the characteristics of the people who
participate in the study (formerly called the subjects, now called the
participants) are important, as is the number of people who are
studied.
This also is presented with statistics.

Using the Scientific Method

Experiment
Research method in which the researcher tries to
determine the cause-and-effect relationship between
two variables

Independent variable
Variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on
the dependent variable

Dependent variable
Variable that may change as a result of whatever new
condition or situation the experimenter adds

Using the Scientific Method

Experimental group
Subjected to the particular treatment or condition (the
independent variable)
Comparison group (also called a control group)
Does not receive the experimental group treatment

How to Conduct an Experiment

Using the Scientific Method

The Survey
Involves collection of information from a large number
of people
Presents challenges in acquiring valid information
Produces answers that are influenced by the wording
and the sequence of the survey questions

I Forgot?
If this were the only data
available, you might
conclude that ninthgraders have suddenly
become more sexually
active than twelfthgraders.
But we have 20 years of
datathose who are
ninth-graders now will
answer differently by
twelfth grade.

Studying Development over the Life Span

Cross-sectional Research
Groups of people of one age compared with people of
another age

Longitudinal Research
Collecting data repeatedly on the same individuals as
they age

Cross-sequential Research
Study several groups of people of different ages (a
cross-sectional approach) and follow them over the
years (a longitudinal approach)

Which Approach Is Best?

Which Approach Is Best?

Cautions from Science

Correlation and Causation
Correlation exists between two variables if one
variable is more (or less) likely to occur when the
other does.
Positive correlation - Both variables tend to increase or
decrease together.
Negative correlation - One variable tends to increase
while the other decreases.
Zero correlation - No connection is evident.

Correlation is not causation

Quiz on Correlation

Cautions from Science

Quantitative research
Provides data that can be expressed with numbers,
such as ranks or scales.

Qualitative research
Considers qualities instead of quantities.
Descriptions of particular conditions and participants
expressed ideas are often part of qualitative studies.

Ethics
Each academic discipline and professional society
involved in the study of human development has a
code of ethics.
An Institutional Review Board (IRB) ensures that
research follows established guidelines and remains
ethical.
Participation is voluntary, confidential, and harmless.
Research subjects must give informed consentunderstand the research procedures and any risks
involved.