Casting Processes

Onek boro!!...

The Mold in Casting

Mold contains a cavity whose

geometry determines part shape
Actual size and shape of
cavity
must
be
slightly
oversized
to
allow
for
shrinkage of metal during
solidification and cooling
Molds are made of a variety of
materials, including sand,
plaster, ceramic, and metal

Open Molds and Closed Molds

Two forms of mold:

(a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of the desired part;
(b)closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more complex and
requires a gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity.

Two Categories of Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes uses an expendable mold
which must be destroyed to remove casting
Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus
binders
Advantage: more complex shapes possible
Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to
make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes uses a permanent mold which
can be used over and over to produce many castings
Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory
material)
Advantage: higher production rates
Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold

Casting Processes
The different casting processes are as follows:
1. Expendable mold processes

Sand Casting

Shell casting

Investment casting
2. Permanent mold processes

Basic permanent mold casting

Die casting

Centrifugal casting

Overview of Sand Casting

Sand casting is a cast part produced by
forming a mold from a sand mixture and then
pouring molten liquid metal into the cavity in the
mold. The mold is then cooled until the metal
has solidified
Most widely used casting process, accounting for
a significant majority of total tonnage cast (?)
Nearly all alloys can be sand cast, including
metals with high melting temperatures, such as
steel, nickel, and titanium
Castings range in size from small to very large
Production quantities from one to millions

A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) for an air
compressor frame

Steps in Sand Casting

1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.
2. Incorporate a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
5. Allow the metal to solidify and cool.
6. Break away the sand mold and remove the

casting.
7. Clean and inspect casting
8. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes
required to improve metallurgical properties

Production Steps in Sand Casting

Core
making (if
needed)

Pattern
making

Sand

Preparatio
n of sand

Mold
making

Raw
metal

Melting

Pouring

Solidification
and cooling

Removal of
sand mold

Finished
casting

Cleaning and
inspection

Making the Sand Mold

The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand
around a pattern, then separating the mold into two
halves and removing the pattern
The mold must also contain gating and riser system
If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
A new sand mold must be made for each part produced

Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand
held together by thermosetting resin binder

Gear housing

Shell Molding
Shell mold casting is a metal casting process similar to
sand casting, in that molten metal is poured into an
expendable mold. However, in shell mold casting, the
mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying a sandresin mixture around a pattern.
The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired
part, is reused to form multiple shell molds. A reusable
pattern allows for higher production rates, while the
disposable molds enable complex geometries to be cast.
Shell mold casting requires the use of a metal pattern,
oven, sand-resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal.
Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and
non-ferrous metals, most commonly using cast iron,
carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys,
and copper alloys. Typical parts are small-to-medium in
size and require high accuracy, such as gear housings,
cylinder heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.

Shell Molding
Steps in shellmolding: (1) a matchplate or copeanddrag
metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing
sand mixed with thermosetting resin.

Shell Molding
Steps in shellmolding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and
resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture
to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell; (3) box is
repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop away;

Shell Molding
Steps in shellmolding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven for
several minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is
stripped from the pattern;

Shell Molding

Steps in shellmolding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are

assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring
is accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue removed.

Shell Molding
1. Pattern creation - A two-piece metal pattern is created
in the shape of the desired part, typically from iron or
steel. Aluminum for low volume production or graphite
for casting reactive materials are used.
2. Mold creation - First, each pattern half is heated to 175370C (350-700F) and coated with a lubricant to
facilitate removal. Next, the heated pattern is clamped
to a dump box, which contains a mixture of sand and a
resin binder. The dump box is inverted, allowing this
sand-resin mixture to coat the pattern. The heated
pattern partially cures the mixture, which now forms a
shell around the pattern. Each pattern half and
surrounding shell is cured to completion in an oven and
then the shell is ejected from the pattern.

Shell Molding
1. Mold assembly - The two shell halves are joined
together and securely clamped to form the complete
shell mold. If any cores are required, they are
inserted prior to closing the mold. The shell mold is
then placed into a flask and supported by a backing
material.
2. Pouring - The mold is securely clamped together
while the molten metal is poured from a ladle into
the gating system and fills the mold cavity.
3. Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten
metal is allowed to cool and solidify into the shape of
the final casting.
4. Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled,
the mold can be broken and the casting removed.
Trimming and cleaning processes are required to
remove any excess metal from the feed system and
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any sand from the mold.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of shell molding:
Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow
of molten metal and better surface finish
Good dimensional accuracy - machining often
not required
Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
Can be mechanized for mass production
Disadvantages:
More expensive metal pattern
Difficult to justify for small quantities

Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

In Investment casting, Molten metal
is poured into an expendable ceramic
mold.
The mold is formed by using a wax
pattern - a disposable piece in the
shape of the desired part. The pattern
is surrounded, or "invested", into
ceramic slurry that hardens into the
mold. Investment casting is often
referred to as "lost-wax casting"
because the wax pattern is melted out
of the mold after it has been formed.

Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

Lost-wax processes are one-to-one (one pattern creates

one part), which increases production time and costs
relative to other casting processes. However, since the
mold is destroyed during the process, parts with complex
geometries and intricate details can be created.
Investment casting can make use of most metals, most
commonly using aluminum alloys, bronze alloys,
magnesium alloys, cast iron, stainless steel, and tool
steel. This process is beneficial for casting metals with
high melting temperatures that cannot be molded in
plaster or metal.
Parts that are typically made by investment casting
include those with complex geometry such as turbine
blades or firearm components. High temperature
applications are also common, which includes parts for
the automotive, aircraft, and military industries.
Investment casting requires the use of a metal die, wax,

Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are produced, (2)

several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree

Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin
layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by covering
the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid

Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted position

and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity, (6)
the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal is
poured, and it solidifies

Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is broken away

from the finished casting and the parts are separated
from the sprue

Investment Casting
1. Pattern creation - The wax patterns are typically
injection molded into a metal die and are formed as
one piece. Cores may be used to form any internal
features on the pattern. Several of these patterns are
attached to a central wax gating system (sprue,
runners, and risers), to form a tree-like assembly. The
gating system forms the channels through which the
molten metal will flow to the mold cavity.
2. Mold creation - This "pattern tree" is dipped into slurry
of fine ceramic particles, coated with more coarse
particles, and then dried to form a ceramic shell
around the patterns and gating system. This process is
repeated until the shell is thick enough to withstand
the molten metal it will encounter. The shell is then
placed into an oven and the wax is melted out leaving
a hollow ceramic shell that acts as a one-piece mold,
hence the name "lost wax" casting.

Investment Casting
4. Pouring - The mold is preheated in a furnace to
approximately 1000C (1832F) and the molten metal is
poured from a ladle into the gating system of the mold,
filling the mold cavity. Pouring is typically achieved
manually under the force of gravity, but other methods
such as vacuum or pressure are sometimes used.
5. Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is
allowed to cool and solidify into the shape of the final
casting. Cooling time depends on the thickness of the part,
thickness of the mold, and the material used.
6. Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the
mold can be broken and the casting removed. The ceramic
mold is typically broken using water jets, but several other
methods exist. Once removed, the parts are separated
from the gating system by either sawing or cold breaking
(using liquid nitrogen).
7. Finishing - Often times, finishing operations such as
grinding or sandblasting are used to smooth the part at the
gates. Heat treatment is also sometimes used to harden

Investment Casting

A onepiece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils

made by investment casting

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of investment casting:
Parts of great complexity and intricacy can
be cast
Close dimensional control and good surface
finish
Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
Additional machining is not normally
required this is a net shape process
Disadvantages
Many processing steps are required
Relatively expensive process

Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a new mold
is required for every casting
In permanent mold casting a metal mold can be reused for
several thousand cycles
Permanent mold casting is typically used for high-volume
production of small, simple metal parts with uniform wall
thickness.
Common permanent mold parts include gears and gear housings,
pipe fittings, and other automotive and aircraft components.
The processes include:
Basic permanent mold casting
Die casting
Centrifugal casting

The Basic Permanent Mold Process

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and closing

Molds used for casting

lower melting point
alloys are commonly
made of steel or cast
iron
Molds used for casting
steel must be made of
refractory material,
due to the very high
pouring temperatures

Steps in Permanent Mold Casting

Step 1: Mold is preheated and coated

First, the mold is pre-heated to around 300-500F (150260C) to allow better metal flow and reduce defects.
Then, a ceramic coating is applied to the mold cavity
surfaces to facilitate part removal and increase the mold

Permanent Mold Casting

Step 2: Mold assembly
- The mold consists of at least two parts - the
two mold halves and any cores used to form
complex features. Such cores are typically made
from iron or steel, but expendable sand cores are
sometimes used. In this step, the cores are
inserted and the mold halves are clamped
together.

Permanent Mold Casting

Step 3: Pouring

The molten metal

is poured at a slow
rate from a ladle into
the mold through a
sprue at the top of
the mold. The metal
flows
through
a
runner system and
enters
the
mold
cavity.

Step 4: Cooling
The molten metal is allowed to cool and
solidify in the mold.
Step 5: Mold opening
After the metal has solidified, the two mold
halves are opened and the casting is removed.
Step 6: Trimming
During cooling, the metal in the runner system
and sprue solidify attached to the casting. This
excess material is now cut away.

Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of permanent mold casting:
Good dimensional control and surface finish
More rapid solidification caused by the cold
metal mold results in a finer grain structure,
so castings are stronger
Limitations:
Generally limited to metals of lower melting
point
Simpler part geometries compared to sand
casting because of need to open the mold
High cost of mold

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Die Casting
Can produce geometrically complex metal parts through
the use of reusable molds, called dies.
The die casting process involves the use of a furnace,
metal, die casting machine, and die. The metal is melted
in the furnace and then injected into mold cavity under
high pressure.
Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is
opened and part is removed
Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the
name die casting
Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes

Die Casting application

One common application of die cast parts are
housings - thin-walled enclosures, often requiring
many ribs and bosses on the interior.
Metal housings for a variety of appliances and
equipment are often die cast. Several automobile
components are also manufactured using die
casting, including pistons, cylinder heads, and
engine blocks.
Other common die cast parts include propellers,
gears, bushings, pumps, and valves.

Die Casting Machines

Designed to hold and accurately close two mold
halves and keep them closed while liquid metal
is forced into cavity
Two main types:
1. Hotchamber
machine
(used for alloys with low
melting
temperatures,
such as zinc)
2. Coldchamber
machine
(used for alloys with high
melting
temperatures,
such as aluminum).

Differences between these machines on equipment and

tooling. However, in both machines, after the molten metal is
injected into the dies, it rapidly cools and solidifies into the

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston
injects liquid metal under high pressure
into the die
High production rates - 500 parts per hour
not uncommon
Applications limited to low meltingpoint
metals that do not chemically attack
plunger and other mechanical components
Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and
magnesium

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in hotchamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger

withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in hotchamber casting: (2) plunger forces metal in

chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification.

ColdChamber Die Casting Machine

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
High production but not usually as fast as
hotchamber machines because of pouring step
Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
Advantages of hotchamber process favor its use
on low meltingpoint alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

ColdChamber Die Casting

Cycle in coldchamber casting: (1) with die closed, molten

metal is poured into the chamber

ColdChamber Die Casting

Cycle in coldchamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to flow

into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.

Molds for Die Casting

Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
Ejector pins required to remove part from die
when it opens
Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking

Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of die casting:
Economical for large production quantities
Good accuracy and surface finish
Thin sections are possible
Rapid cooling provides small grain size and
good strength to casting
Disadvantages:
Generally limited to metals with low metal
points
Part geometry must allow removal from die

Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal casting is a metal casting
process that uses centrifugal force to form
cylindrical parts.
This differs from most metal casting
processes, which use gravity or pressure to fill
the mold.
A permanent mold made from steel, cast
iron, or graphite is typically used.
The casting process is usually performed on
a horizontal centrifugal casting machine
(vertical machines are also available).
Centrifugal casting is used to produce axisymmetric parts, such as cylinders or disks,
which are typically hollow.

Centrifugal Casting

Steps in Centrifugal Casting

1. Mold preparation - The walls of a cylindrical mold are first
coated with a refractory ceramic coating, which involves a
few steps (application, rotation, drying, and baking). Once
prepared and secured, the mold is rotated about its axis at
high speeds (300-3000 RPM), typically around 1000 RPM.
2. Pouring - Molten metal is poured directly into the rotating
mold, without the use of runners or a gating system. The
centrifugal force drives the material towards the mold walls
as the mold fills.
3. Cooling - With all of the molten metal in the mold, the mold
remains spinning as the metal cools. Cooling begins quickly
at the mold walls and proceeds inwards.
4. Casting removal - After the casting has cooled and solidified,
the rotation is stopped and the casting can be removed.
5. Finishing - While the centrifugal force drives the dense metal
to the mold walls, any less dense impurities or bubbles flow
to the inner surface of the casting. As a result, secondary
processes such as machining, grinding, or sand-blasting, are

Due to the high centrifugal forces, these parts have a

very fine grain on the outer surface and possess
mechanical properties approximately 30% greater than
parts formed with static casting methods.
These parts may be cast from ferrous metals such as
low alloy steel, stainless steel, and iron, or from nonferrous alloys such as aluminum, bronze, copper,
magnesium, and nickel.
Centrifugal casting is performed in wide variety of
industries, including aerospace, industrial, marine, and
power transmission.
Typical parts include bearings, bushings, coils,
cylinder liners, nozzles, pipes/tubes, pressure vessels,
pulleys, rings, and wheels.