Chapter 3

The Cellular Concept - System Design

Fundamentals

I. Introduction

Goals of a Cellular System

Large coverage area - Bell system in New York City

had early mobile radio

High capacity
Large coverage area
Efficient use of limited spectrum

Single Tx, high power, and tall tower

Low cost
Large coverage area - Bell system in New York City had 12
simultaneous channels for 1000 square miles
Small # users
Poor spectrum utilization

What are possible ways we could increase the number

of channels available in a cellular system?
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Cellular concept

Frequency reuse pattern

Cells labeled with the same letter use the same

group of channels.
Cell Cluster: group of N cells using complete set of
available channels
Many base stations, lower power, and shorter towers
Small coverage areas called cells
Each cell allocated a % of the total number of
available channels
Nearby (adjacent) cells assigned different channel
groups

to prevent interference between neighboring base

stations and mobile users
4

Same frequency channels may be reused by cells a

reasonable distance away

reused many times as long as interference between same

channel (co-channel) cells is < acceptable level

As frequency reuse # possible simultaneous

users # subscribers but system cost (more
towers)
To increase number of users without increasing radio
frequency allocation, reduce cell sizes (more base
stations) # possible simultaneous users
The cellular concept allows all mobiles to be
manufactured to use the same set of freqencies
*** A fixed # of channels serves a large # of users by
reusing channels in a coverage area ***
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II. Frequency Reuse/Planning

Design process of selecting & allocating

channel groups of cellular base stations
Two competing/conflicting objectives:
1) maximize frequency reuse in specified area
2) minimize interference between cells

Cells

base station antennas designed to cover specific cell

area
hexagonal cell shape assumed for planning
simple model for easy analysis circles leave gaps

actual cell footprint is amorphous (no specific shape)

where Tx successfully serves mobile unit

base station location

cell center omni-directional antenna (360
coverage)
not necessarily in the exact center (can be up to R/4
from the ideal location)
7

cell corners sectored or directional antennas

on 3 corners with 120 coverage.

very commom
Note that what is defined as a corner is
somewhat flexible a sectored antenna covers
120 of a hexagonal cell.
So one can define a cell as having three antennas
in the center or antennas at 3 corners.

III. System Capacity

S : total # of duplex channels available for use

in a given area; determined by:

amount of allocated spectrum

channel BW modulation format and/or standard
specs. (e.g. AMPS)

k : number of channels for each cell (k < S)

N : cluster size # of cells forming cluster
S=kN

M : # of times a cluster is replicated over a

geographic coverage area
System Capacity = Total # Duplex Channels = C
C=MS=MkN
(assuming exactly MN cells will cover the area)

If cluster size (N) is reduced and the geographic area

for each cell is kept constant:

The geographic area covered by each cluster is smaller, so

M must to cover the entire coverage area (more clusters
needed).
S remains constant.
So C
The smallest possible value of N is desirable to maximize
system capacity.
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Cluster size N determines:

distance between co-channel cells (D)

level of co-channel interference
A mobile or base station can only tolerate so much
interference from other cells using the same
frequency and maintain sufficient quality.
large N large D low interference but small
M and low C !
Tradeoff in quality and cluster size.
The larger the capacity for a given geographic area,
the poorer the quality.
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Frequency reuse factor = 1 / N

each frequency is reused every N cells

each cell assigned k S / N

N cells/cluster

connect without gaps

specific values are required for hexagonal geometry

N = i2 + i j + j2 where i, j 1
Typical N values 3, 4, 7, 12; (i, j) = (1,1), (2,0),
(2,1), (2,2)

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To find the nearest co-channel neighbors of a particular cell

(1) Move i cells along any chain of hexagons, then (2)
turn 60 degrees and move j cells.

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IV. Channel Assignment Strategies

Goal is to minimize interference & maximize use of

capacity

lower interference allows smaller N to be used greater

frequency reuse larger C

Two main strategies: Fixed or Dynamic

Fixed

each cell allocated a pre-determined set of voice channels

calls within cell only served by unused cell channels

all channels used blocked call no service

several variations

MSC allows cell to borrow a VC (that is to say, a FVC/RVC

pair) from an adjacent cell

donor cell must have an available VC to give

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Dynamic

channels NOT allocated permanently

call request goes to serving base station goes
to MSC
MSC allocates channel on the fly

allocation strategy considers:

likelihood of future call blocking in the cell
reuse distance (interference potential with other cells
that are using the same frequency)
channel frequency

All frequencies in a market are available to be used

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Advantage: reduces call blocking (that is to say,

it increases the trunking capacity), and
increases voice quality
Disadvantage: increases storage &
computational load @ MSC

requires real-time data from entire network related

to:

channel occupancy
traffic distribution
Radio Signal Strength Indications (RSSI's) from all
channels
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V. Handoff Strategies

Handoff: when a mobile unit moves from one

cell to another while a call is in progress, the
MSC must transfer (handoff) the call to a new
channel belonging to a new base station

new voice and control channel frequencies

very important task often given higher priority
than new call

It is worse to drop an in-progress call than to deny a

new one

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Minimum useable signal level

lowest acceptable voice quality

call is dropped if below this level
specified by system designers
typical values -90 to -100 dBm

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Quick review: Decibels

S = Signal power in Watts
Power of a signal in decibels (dBW) is Psignal = 10 log10(S)
Remember dB is used for ratios (like S/N)
dBW is used for Watts
dBm = dB for power in milliwatts = 10 log10(S x 103)
dBm = 10 log10(S) + 10 log10(103) = dBW + 30
-90 dBm = 10 log10(S x 103)
10-9 = S x 103
S = 10-12 Watts = 10-9 milliwatts
-90 dBm = -120 dBW
Signal-to-noise ratio:
N = Noise power in Watts
S/N = 10 log10(S/N) dB (unitless raio)
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choose a (handoff threshold) > (minimum

useable signal level)

so there is time to switch channels before level

becomes too low
as mobile moves away from base station and
toward another base station

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23

Handoff Margin

= Phandoff threshold - Pminimum usable signal dB

carefully selected

too large unnecessary handoff MSC loaded down

too small not enough time to transfer call dropped!

A dropped handoff can be caused by two factors

not enough time to perform handoff

delay by MSC in assigning handoff

high traffic conditions and high computational load on MSC

can cause excessive delay by the MSC
no channels available in new cell

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Handoff Decision

signal level decreases due to

must monitor received signal strength over a period

of time moving average
time allowed to complete handoff depends on
mobile speed

signal fading dont handoff

mobile moving away from base station handoff

large negative received signal strength (RSS) slope

high speed quick handoff

statistics of the fading signal are important to

making appropriate handoff decisions Chapters
4 and 5
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1st Generation Cellular (Analog FM AMPS)

Received signal strength (RSS) of RVC measured at

base station & monitored by MSC
A spare Rx in base station (locator Rx) monitors
RSS of RVC's in neighboring cells

Tells Mobile Switching Center about these mobiles and

their channels

Locator Rx can see if signal to this base station is

significantly better than to the host base station
MSC monitors RSS from all base stations &
decides on handoff
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2nd Generation Cellular w/ digital TDMA (GSM,

IS-136)

Mobile Assisted HandOffs (MAHO)

important advancement
The mobile measures the RSS of the FCCs from
adjacent base stations & reports back to serving base
station
if Rx power from new base station > Rx power from
serving (current) base station by pre-determined
margin for a long enough time period handoff
initiated by MSC

27

MSC no longer monitors RSS of all channels

reduces computational load considerably

enables much more rapid and efficient handoffs
imperceptible to user

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A mobile may move into a different system

controlled by a different MSC

Called an intersystem handoff

What issues would be involved here?

Prioritizing Handoffs

Issue: Perceived Grade of Service (GOS) service

quality as viewed by users

quality in terms of dropped or blocked calls (not voice

quality)
assign higher priority to handoff vs. new call request
a dropped call is more aggravating than an occasional
blocked call
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Guard Channels

% of total available cell channels exclusively set

aside for handoff requests
makes fewer channels available for new call
requests
a good strategy is dynamic channel allocation (not
fixed)

adjust number of guard channels as needed by demand

so channels are not wasted in cells with low traffic

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Queuing Handoff Requests

use time delay between handoff threshold and

minimum useable signal level to place a blocked
handoff request in queue
a handoff request can "keep trying" during that time
period, instead of having a single block/no block
decision
prioritize requests (based on mobile speed) and
handoff as needed
calls will still be dropped if time period expires

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VI. Practical Handoff Considerations

Problems occur because of a large range of

mobile velocities

pedestrian vs. vehicle user

Small cell sizes and/or micro-cells larger #

handoffs
MSC load is heavy when high speed users are
passed between very small cells

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Umbrella Cells

Fig. 3.4, pg. 67

use different antenna heights and Tx power levels to
provide large and small cell coverage
multiple antennas & Tx can be co-located at single
location if necessary (saves on obtaining new tower
licenses)
large cell high speed traffic fewer handoffs
small cell low speed traffic
example areas: interstate highway passing thru
urban center, office park, or nearby shopping mall
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34

Cell Dragging

low speed user w/ line of sight to base station (very strong

signal)
strong signal changing slowly
user moves into the area of an adjacent cell without handoff
causes interference with adjacent cells and other cells

Remember: handoffs help all users, not just the one which is
handed off.

If this mobile is closer to a reused channel interference

for the other user using the same frequency

So this mobile needs to hand off anyway, so other users

benefit because that mobile stays far away from them.

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Typical handoff parameters

Analog cellular (1st generation)

threshold margin 6 to 12 dB
total time to complete handoff 8 to 10 sec

Digital cellular (2nd generation)

total time to complete handoff 1 to 2 sec

lower necessary threshold margin 0 to 6 dB
enabled by mobile assisted handoff

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benefits of small handoff time

greater flexibility in handling high/low speed
users
queuing handoffs & prioritizing
more time to rescue calls needing urgent
handoff
fewer dropped calls GOS increased
can make decisions based on a wide range of metrics
other than signal strength
such as also measure interference levels
can have a multidimensional algorithm for making
decisions
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Soft vs. Hard Handoffs

Hard handoff: different radio channels assigned

when moving from cell to cell

all analog (AMPS) & digital TDMA systems (IS-136,

GSM, etc.)

Many spread spectrum users share the same

frequency in every cell

CDMA IS-95
Since a mobile uses the same frequency in every cell, it
can also be assigned the same code for multiple cells
when it is near the boundary of multiple cells.
The MSC simultaneously monitors reverse link signal
at several base stations
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MSC dynamically decides which signal is best

and then listens to that one

Soft Handoff
passes data from that base station on to the PSTN

This choice of best signal can keep changing.

Mobile user does nothing for handoffs except
just transmit, MSC does all the work
Advantage unique to CDMA systems

As long as there are enough codes available.

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VII. Co-Channel Interference

Interference is the limiting factor in

performance of all cellular radio systems
What are the sources of interference for a
mobile receiver?
Interference is in both

voice channels
control channels

Two major types of system-generated

interference:
1) Co-Channel Interference (CCI)
2) Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
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First we look at CCI

Frequency Reuse

Many cells in a given coverage area use the same

set of channel frequencies to increase system
capacity (C)
Co-channel cells cells that share the same set of
frequencies
VC & CC traffic in co-channel cells is an
interfering source to mobiles in Several different
cells

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Possible Solutions?
1) Increase base station Tx power to improve radio
signal reception? __

this will also increase interference from co-channel

cells by the same amount
no net improvement

2) Separate co-channel cells by some minimum

distance to provide sufficient isolation from
propagation of radio signals?

if all cell sizes, transmit powers, and coverage patterns

same co-channel interference is independent of Tx
power
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co-channel interference depends on:

if D / R then spatial separation relative to cell

coverage area

R : cell radius
D : distance to base station of nearest co-channel cell

improved isolation from co-channel RF energy

Q = D / R : co-channel reuse ratio

hexagonal cells Q = D/R =

3N

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Fundamental tradeoff in cellular system design:

small Q small cluster size more frequency

reuse larger system capacity great
But also: small Q small cell separation
increased co-channel interference (CCI) reduced
voice quality not so great
Tradeoff: Capacity vs. Voice Quality

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Signal to Interference ratio S / I, ____________

S : desired signal power

Ii : interference power from ith co-channel cell

io : # of co-channel interfering cells

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Approximation with some assumptions

Di : distance from ith interferer to mobile

Rx power @ mobile ( Di ) n

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n : path loss exponent

free space or line of sight (LOS) (no obstruction)

n=2
urban cellular n = 2 to 4, signal decays faster
with distance away from the base station
having the same n throughout the coverage area
means radio propagation properties are roughly the
same everywhere
if base stations have equal Tx power and n is the
same throughout coverage area (not always true)
then the above equation (Eq. 3.8) can be used.
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Now if we consider only the first layer (or tier)

of co-channel cells

assume only these provide significant interference

And assume interfering base stations are

equidistant from the desired base station (all at
distance D) then

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What determines acceptable S / I ?

voice quality subjective testing

AMPS S / I 18 dB (assumes path loss
exponent n = 4)
Solving (3.9) for N

Most reasonable assumption is io : # of co-channel

interfering cells = 6
N = 7 (very common choice for AMPS)
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Many assumptions involved in (3.9) :

same Tx power
hexagonal geometry
n same throughout area
Di D (all interfering cells are equidistant from the
base station receiver)
optimistic result in many cases
propagation tools are used to calculate S / I when
assumptions arent valid

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S / I is usually the worst case when a mobile is at the

cell edge

low signal power from its own base station & high
interference power from other cells
more accurate approximations are necessary in those cases
S
R 4

I 2( D R ) 4 2( D R ) 4 2 D 4

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N =7 and S / I 17 dB

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Eq. (3.5), (3.8), and (3.9) are (S / I) for forward link

only, i.e. the cochannel base Tx interfering with desired
base station transmission to mobile unit

so this considers interference @ the mobile unit

What about reverse link co-channel interference?

less important because signals from mobile antennas (near

the ground) dont propagate as well as those from tall base
station antennas
obstructions near ground level significantly attenuate mobile
energy in direction of base station Rx
also weaker because mobile Tx power is variable base
stations regulate transmit power of mobiles to be no larger
than necessary
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HW1:
1-9, 1-11, 1-18, 3-5, 3-7

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