MP ppt1

Manufacturing
Processes
By
Giridhar S. Chavan
Program: B. Tech (Mechatronics)

Course: Manufacturing Processes
Teaching Scheme
L
e
c
t
u
r
e
Practical
Tutorials
Semester: IV
Code: BTMA04005
Evaluation Scheme
Credit
Theor
y
(3
Hrs,
60
Marks
)
Weigh
tage
100%
Internal Continuous Assessment (ICA)

As per Institute Norms
Weightage 40%
Pre-requisite: Workshop Practice (BTAB02006)

Objectives:
To introduce different manufacturing processes like casting, forging, machining, rolling etc.
To impart knowledge of various process equipments used in manufacturing processes.
Outcomes :
After successful completion of this course, students should be able to
Understand and differentiate the different types of metal casting and forming process.
Explain the different types of equipments used in casting, and metal forming process.
Understand the operations of lathe, milling and drilling machines
Syllabus
Unit
1
Description
Metal Casting:
Pattern Making: Types of patterns, allowances, colour coding; Foundry practices
Moulding sands: types, properties, preparation and testing of sand. Core boxes, core making, types
of cores and their manufacturing; Gating system runner and risers;
Moulding processes: shell moulding, CO2 moulding, investment casting, die casting, centrifugal
casting and continuous casting; Study of various defects in castings.
Duration
10
Machine Tools:
Lathe: Construction and working and operations performed on lathe, attachments and accessories,
types of cutting tools, cutting parameters such as spindle speed, feed and depth of cut, Capstan
and Turret lather, automatic lathes and their construction.
Milling Machines: Types of milling machines, tools and their geometry, various operations on milling
machine, different attachments (including dividing heads) and work holding devices.
Drilling Machines: Types of machines, drilling operations such as drilling, boring, reaming, spot
facing, counter boring and sinking, tapping.
Boring and Broaching Machine: Classification horizontal and vertical boring machine, types of
broaching machines, advantages, limitations and applications of broaching.
15
Forming processes: Cold and hot working

Rolling: Principle and mechanism, types of rolling and their applications, defects in rolling.
Forging: Classification of forging processes, basic categories and methods of forging, heat
treatment of forged parts. Extrusion: Hot And cold Extrusion, Equipment, Estimation of
extrusion force, defects In extruded parts; wire and tube Drawing: Metal Stamping And
Forming, blanking, piercing, bending, deep drawing, roll forming, shear forming and flow
Forming.
Press tools: Different type of presses and their working, strip layout, Progressive die,
Compound and combination dies
14
Abrasive Machining Processes: Mechanics of grinding, types and operations of grinding machines,
Centreless grinding, Grinding wheel specifications and its selection, Truing and dressing of wheels,
superfinishing processes such as lapping and honing.
06
Text Books:
1. P. N. Rao , Manufacturing Technology-Vol I, Tata McGraw Hill, 2008.
2.
3.
W. A. J. Chapman , Work Shop Technology- Vol I, II, III, ELBS Publishers,2011

H. Chaudhary, S.K. Bose and Roy Nirjha, Elements of Workshop Technology- Vol I & II, Media Promoters and Publishers, 2007
Reference Books:
1. G. K. Lal , Fundamentals of Manufacturing Processes, Alfa Science International,2010
2. A.B. Chatopadhyaya, Machining and Machine Tools, Wiley India, 2011
3. S. Kalpakjian and S. R. Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 4 th Edition, Pearson, 2002
Term Work:
1. Assignments based on the above syllabus (Min. 3).
2. Visit to any nearby foundry/ fabrication unit.
Metal Casting
Unit 1
Outline
Introduction
Metal Solidification
Fluid Flow
Fluidity of Molten Metal
Heat Transfer
Casting Defects
Introduction
Casting
Pouring molten metal into a mold shaped after the part
to be produced, allowing it to harden, and removing it
from the mold
Introduction
Introduction
- Can be used to create complex internal and external part geometries
- Some casting processes can produce parts to net shape (no further manufacturing
operations are required)
- Can produce very large parts (cast parts weighing over 100 tons have been made)
- Can be used with any metal that can be heated to its liquid phase
- Some types of casting are suited to mass production
Examples of Cast Parts
Crank handle formed by casting; some areas

were machined and assembled after casting
C-clamps formed by casting (left) and

machining (right)
Complex part formed by casting

Courtesy of Toth Industries
Forms of Casting
and Terminology
Introduction
Requirements:
- Mold cavity with desired shape and size
- Melting process to provide molten metal
- Pouring process to introduce the metal into the mold
- Solidification process controlled to prevent defects
- Ability to remove the casting from the mold
- Cleaning, finishing and inspection operations
Figure 11.2 Steps in the production sequence in sand

casting The steps include not only the casting
operation but also patternmaking and moldmaking
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes Engineering
Pattern
A pattern is an element used for making cavities in the
mould, into which molten
metal is poured to produce a casting.

Requirements of a good pattern, and pattern
allowances.
Secure the desired shape and size of the casting
Simple in design, for ease of manufacture
Cheap and readily availableLight in mass and convenient to
handle
Have high strength
PATTERN
Model of a casting constructed
such that it forms an impression in
moulding sand
PATTERN
1st step- Prepare model (pattern)
Differs from the casting
Differences
Allowances.
Pattern
To compensate for metal shrinkage,

Provide sufficient metal for machining
Easiness in moulding
As Shrinkage allowance, Draft allowance, Finishing
allowance, Distortion or camber allowance,
Shaking or rapping allowance
MATERIAL
1. WOOD.
2. METAL
Al, CI, Brass,
3. For special casting processes,

Polystyrene which leaves mould as
gas when heated also used.
Types- many
Simple-Identical patterns;
Complex, intricate- with number of pieces.
Single or loose piece; Split; gated; Match Plate;
Sweep; Segmental; Skeleton(frame, ribbed), skell;
Boxed Up; Odd shaped etc. Sketches--
Material
1. WOOD.
(+) Cheap, easily available, light, easiness in
surfacing, preserving (by shellac coating),
workable, ease in joining, fabrication
(-) Moisture effects, wear by sand abrasion, warp
during forming, not for rough use.
Must be properly dried/ seasoned,
free from knots, straight grained
Egs. Burma teak, pine wood, mahogany, Sal,
Deodar, Shisham, Walnut, Apple tree
2. METAL:
For durability, strength
Egs: Al alloys, Brass, Mg alloys, Steel,
cast Iron for mass production
(first, wooden pattern is made, then
cast in the metal)
Type of material depends on shape,
size, number of castings required,
method of moulding etc.
Pattern materials
Wood
Common metals such as Brass, cast Iron, Aluminium and white
metal etc.
Plastic
Gypsum
Pattern allowances
Shrinkage allowance
Machining allowance
Draft allowance
Shake allowance
Distortion allowance
Pattern,
Finish Allowance,
Thickness
and Wall
Min
Wall
mm
Metal
Pattern
Oversize Factor
(each direction)
Finish Allowance
(smaller number
for larger sizes)
Aluminum
1.08 - 1.12
0.5 to 1.0 %
4.75
Copper alloys
1.05 - 1.06
0.5 to 1.0 %
2.3
Gray Cast Iron
1.10
0.4 to 1.6 %
3.0
Nickel alloys
1.05
0.5 to 1.0 %
N/A
Steel
1.05 - 1.10
0.5 to 2 %
Magnesium
alloys
1.07 - 1.10
0.5 to 1.0 %
4.0
Malleable
Irons
1.06 - 1.19
0.6 to 1.6 %
3.0
PATTERN ALLOWANCE
A duplicate of
the product to be cast, modified
dimensionally to reflect process of material to be cast
Modification incorporated in pattern are allowance or pattern
allowance
Expandable mould use some form of reasonable pattern
Allowances are added to the pattern and mould cavity is
larger than final Casting.
TYPES OF
ALLOWANCE
1.SHRINKAGE
ALLOWANCE
PURPOSE
To
compensate
for
volumetric
contraction during freezing of metal,
this allowance is added
Shrinkage
though
volumetric,
allowance linearly expressed as % of
mass or length
Pattern made larger applying shrink
rule depending metal / product
TYPES OF ALLOWANCE
2. DRAFT ALLOWANCE
PURPOSE
The allowance which facilitate easy
withdrawal of pattern from mould walls
Slight taper or draft is provided to
vertical side of mould walls all around
Drat allowance is additive: 1 1.5 %
of length
TYPES OF
ALLOWANCE
PURPOSE
3.MACHINING
ALLOWANCE
To remove rough surface

exhibited in casting especially
sand casting by subsequent
machining
Allowance is added to pattern
to provide compensation during
machining
Depends
on
finish
requirement, product complexity
and type of material to be cast
4.DISTORATIO
N
Thin section or abnormal

change in size of the product
restrained in mould which tend
to distort upon cooling
U or V shaped section tends
to distort more while cooling in
mould
1-2 is given as allowance
inwardly
Diagram
TYPES OF
ALLOWANCE
5.SHAKE or
RAPPING
PURPOSE
Cavity enlarge while pattern is
withdrawn due to tapping
Cavity made smaller. tapping of
pattern results original dimension
It is a subtractive allowance
Added to parting surface or
parallel to parting surface
Size of the final pattern
Different types of patterns

Split or Parted Pattern
Loose Piece Pattern
Draw backs
Gated Patterns.
Match Plate pattern
Cope and Drag Pattern
Sweep Patterns.
Figure 11.3 Types of patterns used in sand casting:

(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) matchplate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
ISE 316 - Manufacturing
Processes Engineering
TYPES OF PATTERNS
NIT CALICUT
1. SINGLE PIECE PATTERN.
NIT CALICUT
2. SPLIT PATTERN (TWO PIECE )
NIT CALICUT
2. a, THREE PIECE SPLIT PATTERN
NIT CALICUT
3. LOOSE PIECE PATTERN
4. COPE AND DRAG PATTERN

COPE AND DRAG PARTS OF THE PATTERN
MOUNTED ON SEPARATE PLATES.
COPE HALF AND DRAG HALF MADE BY

WORKING ON DIFFERENT MOULDING
MACHINES.
THIS REDUCES THE SEPARATE COPE AND

DRAG PLATE PREPARATION.
GENERALLY FOR HIGH SPEED

MECHANISED MOULDING.
NIT CALICUT
5. MATCH PLATE PATTERN
NIT CALICUT
Pattern generally of metal and plate making parting line metal/wood .
6. FOLLOW BOARD PATTERN.

For thin sections.
NIT CALICUT
THIN PATTERN
7. GATED PATTERN
NIT CALICUT
Gating system is a part of the pattern.
8. SWEEP PATTERN
For large size castings in small numbers. Template of wood
NIT CALICUT
attached to a sweep used.
9. SEGMENTAL PATTERN
NIT CALICUT
For rings, wheel rims, large size gears.
10. SKELETON PATTERN.Stickle board used to scrape the excess sand.

Eg. Oil pipes, water pipes, pipe bends, boxes, valve bodies etc .
NIT CALICUT
Stickle board
NIT CALICUT
11. SHELL PATTERN
12. BUILT UP PATTERN
Also called lagged up patterns- For barrels, pipes,
NIT CALICUT
columns etc
13. LEFT AND RIGHT PATTERN
NIT CALICUT
For parts to be made in pairs.

Eg: legs of sewing machine, wood working lathe, garden benches, J
hangers for shafts, brackets for luggage racks etc.
NIT CALICUT
Type of pattern depends on:

Shape and size of casting,
number of castings required,
method of moulding employed,
easiness or difficulties of the
moulding operations,
other factors peculiar to the
casting.
Casting Terminology
Flask
The box containing the mold
Cope
The top half of any part of a 2-part mold
Drag
The bottom half of any part of a 2-part mold
Core
A shape inserted into the mold to form internal cavities
Core Print
A region used to support the core
Casting Terminology
Mold Cavity
The hollow mold area in which metal solidifies into the part
Riser
An extra cavity to store additional metal to prevent shrinkage
Gating System
Channels used to deliver metal into the mold cavity
Pouring Cup
The part of the gating system that receives poured metal
Sprue
Vertical channel
Runners
Horizontal channels
Casting Terminology
Parting Line / Parting Surface
Interface that separates the cope and drag of a 2-part mold
Draft
Taper on a pattern or casting that allows removal from the mold
Core Box
Mold or die used to produce cores
Casting
The process and product of solidifying metal in a mold
CHARACTERISTICS OF PATTERN
MATERIALS
CHARACTERISTIC
RATING
WOOD
MACHINABILITY
WEAR RESISTANCE
STRENGTH
EG E
WEIGHT
G F
PG E
STEEL
G P
G F
RESISTANCE TO:
CORROSION
SWELLING
(by water) E E
P E
E- Excellent; G- Good; F-fair, P- Poor
PLASTIC
G G
E G P
REPAIRABILITY
AL
CAST IRON
Functions of pattern
Moulding the Gating
system;
Establishing a parting
Line,
Making Cores,
Minimising casting
Defects,
Providing Economy in
Cores
Cores : cores are used to prepare cavity or hollow

projections on casting
Complicated contour or cavity produced by coresintricate & complex shapes
Purpose of cores
Intricate & hollow parts need cores for moulding (engine
block, other hollow parts)
Cores may be used to form a part of sand mould
Strengthen & improve a mould surface
Cores may be used as a part of gating system
Types of cores
Unbalanced core
Balanced core
Cover core
Vertical core
Drop core
Core prints
Purpose
Securely hold the core in position relative to
mould cavity and the core print is a part of core
Core
Core print
Chaplet
Mould
MOULD PREPARATION
Green sand mould :
A green sand mould is composed of mixture of sand,
clay and water.
Dry sand mould :
Dry sand moulds are basically green sand moulds with 1
to 2% cereal flour and 1 to 2% pitch.
Materials used in mould preparation
Silica sand, Binder, Additives and water
.
Various properties of moulding sand .

Permeability
Strength or CohesivenessRefractoriness.
Plasticity or flowability
Collapsibility
Adhesiveness.
Co-efficient of Expansion
Different moulding sand test procedures.

The following tests have been recommended by B.I.S.
1. Moisture content test
2. Clay content test
3. Permeability test
4. Fineness test or Sand grain size test (Sieve analysis)
5. Strength test
6. Mould hardness test.
CORE MAKING
Core
is a body made of refractory material (sand or metal,
metal cores being less frequently used), which is set into
the prepared mould before closing and pouring it, for
forming through holes, recesses, projections, undercuts
and internal cavities.
Core Prints. Core prints are the projections on a pattern
and are used to make recesses (core seats) in the mould
to locate the core
Casting
Factors to be considered for selecting a furnace for
a job
Capacity of molten metal
Melting rate and temp armature control desired, Quality of
melt required
Method of pouring and types of product contemplated.
Cupola Furnace operation

The cupola is the most widely used furnace in the
foundry for melting ferrous and non-ferrous metals and
alloys. A cross-section of a cupola is shown. A cupola is a
shaft furnace of cylindrical shape erected on legs or
columns. The cupola shell is made of steel plate 8 or 10
mm thick. The interior is lined with refractory bricks to
protect the shell from getting over-heated. The charge for
the cupola consists of metallic materials, fuel and fluxes.
Different Casting Processes

Process
Advantages
Disadvantages
Examples
Sand
many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap
poor finish & tolerance
engine blocks,
cylinder heads
Shell mold
better accuracy, finish, higher

production rate
limited part size
connecting rods, gear

housings
Expendable
pattern
Wide range of metals, sizes,

shapes
patterns have low

strength
cylinder heads, brake

components
Plaster mold
complex shapes, good surface

finish
non-ferrous metals, low

production rate
prototypes of
mechanical parts
Ceramic mold
complex shapes, high accuracy,

good finish
small sizes
impellers, injection
mold tooling
Investment
complex shapes, excellent finish
small parts, expensive
jewellery
Permanent
mold
good finish, low porosity, high

production rate
Costly mold, simpler

shapes only
gears, gear housings
Die
Excellent dimensional accuracy,

high production rate
costly dies, small parts,

non-ferrous metals
gears, camera bodies,

car wheels
Centrifugal
Large cylindrical parts, good

quality
Expensive, few shapes
pipes, boilers,
flywheels
Sand Casting
Sand Casting
cope: top half
drag: bottom half
core: for internal cavities
pattern: positive
funnel sprue
runners gate
cavity
{risers, vents}
Sand Casting Considerations..

(d) taper
- do we need it ?
(e) core prints, chaplets
- hold the core in position
- chaplet is metal (why?)
chaplet
Mold
cavity
(f) cut-off, finishing
Chaplets
Chaplets are used to support a core from the bottom,or to anchor it
from the top to prevent floating.However,it is quite as important to
secure it against lateral shifting due to unequal pressure of the metal
while pouring.
Various sizes and configurations are available.
a metal support for setting up foundry cores in molds and for holding
them while the molds are filled with molten metal. The chaplet stays in
the body of the casting and must unite well with it. Therefore, it is
made of metal similar to the casting: of soft steel for cast iron and steel
castings, of aluminum in the case of aluminum castings, and so on.
Steel chaplets are tinned or copper coated, for protection against
corrosion and for better weldability to the casting. The shape and size
of a chaplet depend on the complexity of the casting.
Shell mold casting
- metal, 2-piece pattern, 175C-370C

- coated with a lubricant (silicone)
- mixture of sand, thermoset resin/epoxy
- cure (baking)
- remove patterns, join half-shells mold
- pour metal
- solidify (cooling)
- break shell part
Expendable Mold Casting

- Styrofoam pattern
- dipped in refractory slurry dried
- sand (support)
- pour liquid metal
- foam evaporates, metal fills the shell
- cool, solidify
- break shell part
molten
metal
polystyrene
pattern
support
sand
pattern
polystyrene
burns;
gas escapes
Plaster-mold, Ceramic-mold casting

Plaster-mold slurry: plaster of paris (CaSO4), talc, silica flour
Ceramic-mold slurry: silica, powdered Zircon (ZrSiO4)
- The slurry forms a shell over the pattern
- Dried in a low temperature oven
- Remove pattern
- Backed by clay (strength), baked (burn-off volatiles)
- cast the metal
- break mold part
Plaster-mold:good finish (Why ?)
plaster: low conductivity => low warpage, residual stress
low mp metal (Zn, Al, Cu, Mg)
Ceramic-mold: good finish
high mp metals (steel, ) => impeller blades, turbines,
Investment casting (lost wax casting)

(a) Wax pattern
(injection molding)
(d) dry ceramic

melt out the wax
fire ceramic (burn wax)
(e) Pour molten metal (gravity)

cool, solidify
[Hollow casting:
pouring excess metal before solidification
(b) Multiple patterns

assembled to wax sprue
(c) Shell built

immerse into ceramic slurry
immerse into fine sand
(few layers)
(f) Break ceramic shell

(vibration or water blasting)
(g) Cut off parts

(high-speed friction saw)
finishing (polish)
Die casting
- a type of permanent mold casting
- common uses: components for
rice cookers, stoves, fans, washing-, drying machines,
fridges, motors, toys, hand-tools, car wheels,
HOT CHAMBER: (low mp e.g. Zn, Pb; non-alloying)
(i) die is closed, gooseneck cylinder is filled with molten metal
(ii) plunger pushes molten metal through gooseneck into cavity
(iii) metal is held under pressure until it solidifies
(iv) die opens, cores retracted; plunger returns
(v) ejector pins push casting out of ejector die
COLD CHAMBER: (high mp e.g. Cu, Al)

(i) die closed, molten metal is ladled into cylinder
(ii) plunger pushes molten metal into die cavity
(iii) metal is held under high pressure until it solidifies
(iv) die opens, plunger pushes solidified slug from the cylinder
(v) cores retracted
(iv) ejector pins push casting off ejector die
Centrifugal casting
- permanent mold
- rotated about its axis at 300 ~ 3000 rpm
- molten metal is poured
- Surface finish: better along outer diameter than inner,

- Impurities, inclusions, closer to the inner diameter (why ?)
Typical casting defects
Casting Defects
A. Metallic Projections
B. Cavities
C. Discontinuities
D. Defective surface
E. Incomplete Casting
F. Incorrect dimensions or shape
G. Inclusions
Casting Defects
Casting Defects
Porosity may be caused by shrinkage and/or gases
Thin sections solidify faster than thick sections; therefore the molten metal
cannot be supplied to thick regions that are solidifying
Gases become less soluble in a metal as it cools and solidifies, causing it to
be expelled and sometimes form or expand porosity
Casting Defects
Casting Defects
Chills
Pieces of material placed in the mold to speed up heat
transfer in thicker areas of the part to prevent shrinkage
porosity
Internal chills are left within the cast part; external chills
are removed
Chills

Fluidity
The capability of a molten metal to fill mold cavities
Viscosity
Higher viscosity decreases fluidity
Surface tension
Decreases fluidity; often caused by oxide film
Inclusions
Insoluble particles can increase viscosity, reducing fluidity
Solidification pattern
Fluidity is inversely proportional to the freezing temperature range

Mold design
The design and size of the sprue, runners, and risers affect fluidity
Mold material and surface
Thermal conductivity and roughness decrease fluidity
Superheating
The temperature increment above the melting point increases fluidity
Pouring
Lower pouring rates decrease fluidity because of faster cooling
Heat transfer
Affects the viscosity of the metal
Heat Transfer
The metal that solidifies first is at the wall of the mold;
this solid layer thickens as time passes
Shrinkage during cooling can change the part dimensions
and sometimes cause cracking; it is caused by the
metals thermal expansion properties and the phase
change between liquid and solid.
Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer
Pure Metals / Alloys

Cooling Rate
Pure Metals / Alloys

Pure metals solidify at a constant temperature; alloys solidify within a temperature range
A nucleating agent (inoculant) is a substance

that induces grains to nucleate and form at
the same time throughout the structure.
Cooling Rate
Rapid cooling produces equiaxed (roughly round) grains
Slow cooling towards the interior forms long columnar
grains that grow towards the center
Dendrites
Tree-like structures that form during the solidification of alloys
Slow cooling rates produce dendrites with larger branch spacing; faster cooling rates
produce finer spacing; very fast cooling rates produce no dendrites or grains
Fluid Flow
Metal is poured through a pouring cup
Risers hold and supply metal to prevent shrinking during solidification

Gates are designed to prevent contaminants from reaching the mold cavity
Summary
Casting involves melting metal and allowing it to solidify
in the desired shape
Casting allows the creation of parts that would be difficult
or uneconomical to make by machining
Casting
Refractory mold pour liquid metal solidify, remove finish
VERSATILE: complex geometry, internal cavities, hollow sections

VERSATILE: small (~10 grams) very large parts (~1000 Kg)
ECONOMICAL: little wastage (extra metal is re-used)
ISOTROPIC: cast parts have same properties along all directions
Casting Process;
Casting is the process of pouring molten metal into the
previously made cavity to the desired
shape and allow it to solidify.
The following are the basic operations of casting
process
Pattern making
Melting the metal
Pouring it into a previously made mould which confirms to the
shape of desired component.
STRUCTURE
FOR PURE METALS:
At the mould walls, metal cools rapidly. Produces
solidified skin or shell (thickness depends on
composition, mould temperature, mould size and shape etc)
These are of equiaxed structure.

Grains grow opposite to heat transfer through the
mould
These are columnar grains
Driving force of the heat transfer is reduced away
from the mould walls and blocking at the axis
prevents further growth
PURE METALSHave clearly defined melting/freezing point, solidifies at a constant temperature.

Eg: Al - 6600C,
Fe - 15370C,
and W- 34100C.
Size and distribution of the overall grain structure throughout a casting depends on rate & direction of heat flow
(Grain size influences strength, ductility, properties along different directions etc.)
CONVECTION- TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS DUE TO DIFFERNCES IN THE DENSITY OF MOLTEN METAL AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES WITHIN THE FLUID - STRONGLY EFFECTS THE
GRAIN SIZE.
Outer chill zones do not occur in the absence of convection
FOR ALLOYS:
Alloys solidify over a range of temperatures
Begins when temp. drops below liquidous,
completed when it reaches solidous.
Within this temperature range, mushy or pasty
state
(Structure as in figure)
Inner zone can be extended throughout by adding
a catalyst.- sodium, bismuth, tellurium, Mg
(or by eliminating thermal gradient, i.e.
eliminating convection. (Expts in space to see the
effect of lack of gravity in eliminating convection)
(refresh dendritic growth- branches of tree, interlock,

each dendrite develops uniform composition, etc)
SOLIDIFICATION TIME
During solidification, thin solidified skin begins to form at the cool mould walls.
Thickness increases with time.
For flat mould walls
thickness time
(time doubled, thickness by 1.414)
CHVORINOVS RULE
solidification time (t) is a function of volume of the casting and its surface area
t = C ( volume/ surface area )2

C is a constant [depends on mould material, metal properties including latent heat, temperature]
A large sphere solidifies and cools at a much slower rate than a small diameter sphere. (Eg- potatoes, one big and other small)
cube of diameter of sphere,

surface area square of diameter
Volume
Solidification time for various

shapes:
Eg: Three pieces cast with the SAME volume, but
different shapes.
(i)Sphere, (ii)Cube,
(iii)Cylinder with height = diameter.
Which
piece solidifies the fastest?
Solution: Solidification time = C (volume/surface
area)2
Sphere: V= 4/3 ( r3); i.e. r = (3/4 )1/3
Let volume2 = unity. As volume
is same, t = C/
1/3
A= 4
r =
= 4.84
2. 4 (3/4 )
surface
area
2
Cube: V = a3; ie 2a = 1; A =
6
a
= 6.
Cylinder: V = r h = 2 r3; ie, r = (1/2 ) 1/3
A = 2 r2 + 2rh = 6 r2 = 5.54.
Then, t
0.043C
cube
= 0.028C ; t
cylinder
= 0.033C ; t
sphere
Metal poured to cube shaped mould solidifies

the fastest.
SHRINKAGE AND POROSITY

METALS SHRINK(CONTRACT) DURING SOLIDIFICATION
- CAUSES DIMENSIONAL CHANGES
LEADING TO CENTRE LINE SHRINKAGE, POROSITY, CRACKING TOO
SHRINKAGE DUE TO:

(1).CONTRACTION OF
MOLTEN METAL AS IT
COOLS PRIOR TO
SOLIDIFICATION
(2) CONTRACTION OF
SOLIDIFYING METAL,
LATENT HEAT OF
FUSION
2
T
3
(3) CONTRACTION OF
SOLIDIFIED METAL
DURING DROP TO
AMBIENT TEMP
Time
OUT OF THESE, LARGEST SHRINKAGE DURING
COOLING OF CASTING (ITEM 3) eg:pure metal
SOLIDIFICATION CONTRACTION FOR VARIOUS METALS
METAL
Volumetric Solidification Contraction
Al
6.6
Grey cast Iron
Expansion 2.5
Carbon Steel
2.5 to 3
Copper
4.9
Magnesium
4.2
Zinc
6.5
POROSITY DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF GASES

AND METAL TOO.
RELATED TO DUCTILITY
AND SURFACE FINISH
(DUCTILITY V/S POROSITY CURVES FOR
DIFFERENT METALS)
- ELIMINATION BY VARIOUS MEANS
(ADEQUATE SUPPLY OF LIQUID METAL, USE OF
CHILLS, NARROWING MUSHY ZONE- CASTING
SUBJECTED TO ISOSTATIC PRESSING
POROSITY BY GASES
LIQUID METALS HAVE HIGH SOLUBILITY FOR GASES
DISSOLVED GASES EXPELLED FROM SOLUTION DURING SOLIDIFICATION
(Hydrogen, Nitrogen mainly)

ACCUMULATE IN REGIONS OF EXISTING POROSITY
CAUSE MICROPOROSITY IN CASTING
- TO BE CONTROLLED
OR
Ductility
Effect of microporosity on the ductility of

quenched and tempered cast steel Porosity
affects the pressure tightness of cast pressure
vessel
Elongation
Reduction of area
10
Porosity(%)
15
FLOW OF MOLTEN METAL IN MOULDS

Important: pouring basin, mould cavity & riser
GATING SYSTEM Design -fluid flow, heat transfer, influence of
temperature gradient,
FLUID FLOW
Without turbulence
or with minimized turbulence
HEAT FLOW INFLUENCED BY MANY FACTORS
LUIFDITY-A characteristic related to viscosity.
TEST OF FLUIDITY - USING A SPIRAL MOULD.Fluidity Index
TEST FOR
FLUIDITY
USING A SPIRAL
MOULD.
FLUIDITY INDEX
IS THE LENGTH
OF THE
SOLIDIFIED
METAL IN THE
SPIRAL PASSAGE.
GREATER THE
LENGTH,
GREATER THE
FLUIDITY INDEX.
Mould Force = hA (N)
density of metal (kg/m3)
H head of metal (m)

A Projected area (m2)
Sand mould
Cope
mould pressure
F
Drag
Cavity
Parting line
Dies
Die are used as mould to produce casting of low melting
metals like zinc aluminium , magnesium and copper
alloys
Used as permanent mould and contains product features
gravity die casting
Mould is permanent and used for repeat production
(mass production)
Better reproducability of features and dimensions &
surface finish
Dies of split type made from metal where product
features are machined
Die is hinged at on of the edge
Die material melting temperature must be grater than
work material melt temperature and metal should not
diffuse during freezing
DIE MATERIAL
Die steel
AISI P20- for low volume production
AISI H13 high volume production(Aluminium ,
Magnesium)
AISI H20-22 usual die material (Cu alloys)
Two Categories of Metal Casting

Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to
remove part
Advantage: more complex shapes possible

Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to
make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal

and can be used to make many castings
Advantage: higher production rates

Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold

Overview of Sand Casting

Most widely used casting process, accounting for a
significant majority of total tonnage cast
Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals
with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel,
and titanium
Parts ranging in size from small to very large
Production quantities from one to millions

Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) \
for an air compressor frame
(courtesy Elkhart Foundry, photo by Paragon Inc , Elkhart, Indiana)
Steps in Sand Casting

1. Prepare mold for pour.
2. Pour molten metal into sand mold
3. Allow metal to solidify
4. Break up the mold to remove casting
5. Clean and inspect casting
6. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to
improve metallurgical properties
Making the Sand Mold

The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand
around a pattern, then separating the mold into two
halves and removing the pattern
The mold must also contain gating and riser system
If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
A new sand mold must be made for each part produced

Figure 11.2 Steps in the production sequence in sand

casting The steps include not only the casting
operation but also patternmaking and moldmaking
The Pattern
A fullsized model of the part, slightly enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining allowances in the
casting
Pattern materials:
Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but it
warps
Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
Plastic - compromise between wood and metal

Figure 11.3 Types of patterns used in sand casting:

(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) matchplate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
Core
Fullscale model of interior surfaces of part
It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold
cavity and the core to form the casting's external and
internal surfaces
May require supports to hold it in position in the mold
cavity during pouring, called chaplets

Figure 11.4 Core held in place in the mold

cavity by chaplets
(b) possible chaplet design
(c) casting with internal cavity

Desirable Mold Properties and

Characteristics
Strength to maintain shape and resist erosion
Permeability to allow hot air and gases to pass through
voids in sand
Thermal stability to resist cracking on contact with
molten metal
Collapsibility ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting
Reusability can sand from broken mold be reused to
make other molds?
Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
Good refractory properties capacity to endure
high temperatures
Small grain size yields better surface finish on
the cast part
Large grain size is more permeable, to allow
escape of gases during pouring
Irregular grain shapes tend to strengthen molds
due to interlocking, compared to round grains
Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce
permeability
Binders Used with Foundry Sands

Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding
clay
Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:

Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to

enhance strength and/or permeability
Types of Sand Mold

Greensand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water;
Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring
Drysand mold - organic binders rather than clay and

mold is baked to improve strength
Skindried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a
greensand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using
torches or heating lamps

Buoyancy in Sand Casting Operation

During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal tends to
displace the core
Core displacement can cause casting to be defective
Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced liquid less
the weight of core itself
Fb = Wm Wc
where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of molten metal

displaced; and Wc = weight of core
Other Expendable Mold

Casting Processes
Shell Molding
Vacuum Molding
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Investment Casting
Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand
held together by thermosetting resin binder
Developed in Germany during early 1940s

Figure 11.5 Steps in shellmolding: (1) a

matchplate or copeanddrag metal pattern is
heated and placed over a box containing sand
mixed with thermosetting resin
Figure 11.5 Steps in shellmolding: (2) box is inverted

so that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern,
causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the
surface to form a hard shell
Figure 11.5 Steps in shellmolding: (3) box is

repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop away

Figure 11.5 Steps in shellmolding:

(4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to
complete curing
(5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern
Figure 11.5 Steps in shellmolding:

(6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported
by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is
accomplished
(7) the finished casting with sprue removed

Advantages and Disadvantages

of Shell Molding
Advantages:
Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish on casting
Good dimensional accuracy
Machining often not required
Mold collapsibility usually avoids cracks in casting
Can be mechanized for mass production
Disadvantages:
More expensive metal pattern
Difficult to justify for small quantities

Vacuum Molding
Uses sand mold held together by vacuum pressure rather
than by a chemical binder
The term "vacuum" refers to mold making rather than
casting operation itself
Developed in Japan around 1970

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Vacuum Molding
Advantages:
Easy recovery of the sand, since binders not used
Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning normally
done when binders are used
Since no water is mixed with sand, moisturerelated defects
are absent
Disadvantages:
Slow process
Not readily adaptable to mechanization

Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam
pattern which vaporizes when molten metal is poured
into mold
Other names: lostfoam process, lost pattern process,
evaporativefoam process, and fullmold process
Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating
system, and internal cores (if needed)
Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag
sections
Figure 11.7 Expanded polystyrene casting process:

(1) pattern of polystyrene is coated with refractory compound


(2) foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is
compacted around the pattern


(3) molten metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that
forms the pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters the mold,
the polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid,
thus allowing the resulting mold cavity to be filled.

Advantages:
Pattern need not be removed from the mold
Simplifies and expedites moldmaking, since two mold halves
(cope and drag) are not required as in a conventional
greensand mold
Disadvantages:
A new pattern is needed for every casting
Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on
cost of producing patterns
Applications of
Mass production of castings for automobile engines
Automated and integrated manufacturing systems are
used to
Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
Feed them to the downstream casting operation

Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make mold, after which wax is melted away
prior to pouring molten metal
"Investment" comes from one of the less familiar
definitions of "invest" - "to cover completely," which
refers to coating of refractory material around wax
pattern
It is a precision casting process - capable of castings of
high accuracy and intricate detail
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting:

(1) wax patterns are produced
(2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree

(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material
(4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with
sufficient refractory material to make it rigid

(5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated to
melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity
Figure 11.8 Steps in

investment casting:
(6) the mold is preheated to
a high temperature, which
ensures that all
contaminants are
eliminated from the mold;
it also permits the liquid
metal to flow more easily
into the detailed cavity; the
molten metal is poured; it
solidifies

(7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting parts are separated from the sprue

Investment Casting
Advantages:
Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast

Close dimensional control and good surface finish
Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
Additional machining is not normally required this is a net
shape process
Disadvantages
Many processing steps are required
Relatively expensive process
Figure 11 9 A onepiece compressor stator with 108 separate

airfoils made by investment casting (courtesy Howmet Corp )
Plaster Mold Casting

Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster of
Paris (gypsum CaSO42H2O)
In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured
over plastic or metal pattern and allowed to set
Wood patterns not generally used due to extended contact
with water
Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing

its fine details and good surface finish

Plaster Mold Casting
Advantages:
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Capability to make thin crosssections in
casting
Disadvantages:
Moisture in plaster mold causes problems:
Mold must be baked to remove moisture
Mold strength is lost when is over-baked, yet
moisture content can cause defects in product
Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures,

so limited to lower melting point alloys
Ceramic Mold Casting

Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is made
of refractory ceramic materials that can withstand
higher temperatures than plaster
Ceramic molding can be used to cast steels, cast irons,
and other hightemperature alloys
Applications similar to those of plaster mold casting
except for the metals cast
Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also similar
Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a
new mold is required for every casting
In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
The processes include:
Basic permanent mold casting
Die casting
Centrifugal casting

The Basic Permanent Mold Process

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed
for easy, precise opening and closing
Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are
commonly made of steel or cast iron
Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory
material, due to the very high pouring temperatures

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting:

(1) mold is preheated and coated

Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold

casting:
(2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is
closed
Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting:

(3) molten metal is poured into the mold

Advantages and Limitations of

Permanent Mold Casting
Advantages:
Good dimensional control and surface finish
More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold results
in a finer grain structure, so stronger castings are produced
Limitations:
Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
Simple part geometries compared to sand casting because of
the need to open the mold
High cost of mold

Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high
volume production and can be automated accordingly
Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft and missiles
Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copperbase alloys, and cast iron

Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal
is injected into mold cavity under high pressure
Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is
opened and part is removed
Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence
the name die casting
Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes
Die Casting Machines

Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves
and keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into
cavity
Two main types:
1. Hotchamber machine
2. Coldchamber machine

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid
metal under high pressure into the die
High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
Applications limited to low meltingpoint metals that do
not chemically attack plunger and other mechanical
components
Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
Figure 11.13 Cycle in hotchamber casting:

(1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows
into the chamber
Figure 11.13 Cycle in hotchamber casting:

(2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification
ColdChamber Die Casting Machine

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from
external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity
High production but not usually as fast as hotchamber
machines because of pouring step
Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
Advantages of hotchamber process favor its use on low
meltingpoint alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
Figure 11.14 Cycle in coldchamber casting:

(1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal
is poured into the chamber

Figure 11.14 Cycle in coldchamber casting:

(2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification

Molds for Die Casting

Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel
Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)
used to die cast steel and cast iron
Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent
sticking
Advantages and Limitations of

Die Casting
Advantages:
Economical for large production quantities

Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Thin sections are possible
Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
Disadvantages:
Generally limited to metals with low metal points
Part geometry must allow removal from die
cavity
Centrifugal Casting
A group of casting processes in which the mold is rotated
at high speed so centrifugal force distributes molten
metal to outer regions of die cavity
The group includes:
True centrifugal casting
Semicentrifugal casting
Centrifuge casting

True Centrifugal Casting

Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a
tubular part
In some operations, mold rotation commences after
pouring rather than before
Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces
Figure 11.15 Setup for true centrifugal casting

Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather
than tubular parts
Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed
metal
Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections
than at center of rotation
Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined
away, thus eliminating the portion where quality is lowest
Examples: wheels and pulleys
Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from
axis of rotation, so that molten metal poured into mold
is distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force
Used for smaller parts
Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods

Furnaces for Casting Processes

Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:
Cupolas
Direct fuelfired furnaces
Crucible furnaces
Electricarc furnaces
Induction furnaces

Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping spout
near base
Used only for cast irons, and although other furnaces
are also used, largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in
cupolas
The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and possible
alloying elements, is loaded through a charging door
located less than halfway up height of cupola
Direct FuelFired Furnaces

Small openhearth in which charge is heated by natural
gas fuel burners located on side of furnace
Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting flame
down against charge
At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten
metal
Generally used for nonferrous metals such as
copperbase alloys and aluminum
Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel
mixture
Sometimes called indirect fuelfired furnaces
Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or
hightemperature steel alloy
Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and
alloys of zinc and aluminum
Three types used in foundries: (a) liftout type, (b)
stationary, (c) tilting
Figure 11.19 Three types of crucible furnaces:

(a) liftout crucible,
(b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and
(c) tilting-pot furnace

ElectricArc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc
High power consumption, but electricarc furnaces can
be designed for high melting capacity
Used primarily for melting steel

Figure 6.9 Electric arc furnace for steelmaking

Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop
magnetic field in metal
Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid
metal
Since metal does not contact heating elements, the
environment can be closely controlled, which results in molten
metals of high quality and purity
Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common
applications in foundry work
Figure 11.20 Induction furnace

Ladles
Moving molten metal from melting furnace to
mold is sometimes done using crucibles
More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles
Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b)
twoman ladle
Additional Steps After Solidification

Trimming
Removing the core
Surface cleaning
Inspection
Repair, if required
Heat treatment

Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, partingline flash, fins,
chaplets, and any other excess metal from the cast part
For brittle casting alloys and when crosssections are
relatively small, appendages can be broken off
Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hacksawing,
bandsawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various torch
cutting methods are used

Removing the Core

If cores have been used, they must be removed
Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of casting
as the binder deteriorates
In some cases, they are removed by shaking casting,
either manually or mechanically
In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise
enhancing appearance of surface
Cleaning methods: tumbling, airblasting with coarse sand
grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and chemical
pickling
Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting, whereas
in many permanent mold processes, this step can be avoided
Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is needed to
detect their presence
Heat Treatment
Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties
Reasons for heat treating a casting:
For subsequent processing operations such as machining
To bring out the desired properties for the application of the
part in service

Casting Quality
There are numerous opportunities for things to go
wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality defects
in the product
The defects can be classified as follows:
Defects common to all casting processes
Defects related to sand casting process

Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely
filling mold cavity
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a
lack of fusion due to premature freezing
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules
form and become entrapped in casting
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

Sand Blow
Balloonshaped gas cavity caused by release
of mold gases during pouring
Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or
slightly below surface of casting
Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate
into sand mold or sand core, causing casting surface
to consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal
Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by
sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag
Figure 11.23 Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

Foundry Inspection Methods

Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as
misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws
Dimensional measurements to insure that tolerances
have been met
Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests
concerned with quality of cast metal

Metals for Casting

Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather
than pure metals
Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of product
are better
Casting alloys can be classified as:

Ferrous
Nonferrous

Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron

Most important of all casting alloys
Tonnage of cast iron castings is several
times that of all other metals combined
Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2)
nodular iron, (3) white cast iron, (4)
malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast irons
Typical pouring temperatures 1400C
(2500F), depending on composition
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel

The mechanical properties of steel make it an attractive
engineering material
The capability to create complex geometries makes
casting an attractive shaping process
Difficulties faced by the foundry working with steel:
Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for most other
casting metals 1650C (3000F)
At these temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten metal
must be isolated from air
Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum

Generally considered to be very castable
Pouring temperatures low melting
temperature of aluminum Tm = 660C
(1220F)
Properties:
Light weight
Range of strength properties by heat treatment
Ease of machining

Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper

Alloys
Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze
Properties:
Corrosion resistance
Attractive appearance
Good bearing qualities
Limitation: high cost of copper

Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades,
pump components, ornamental jewelry
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys

Highly castable, commonly used in die casting
Low melting point melting point of zinc Tm = 419C
(786F)
Good fluidity for ease of casting
Properties:
Low creep strength, so castings cannot be subjected to
prolonged high stresses

Product Design Considerations:

Geometric Simplicity
Although casting can be used to produce complex part
geometries, simplifying the part design will improve
castability
Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
Simplifies moldmaking
Reduces the need for cores
Improves the strength of the casting


Corners
Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, since they
are sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot
tearing and cracks
Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners
and sharp edges should be blended


Draft Guidelines
In expendable mold casting, purpose of draft is to
facilitate removal of pattern from mold (1 for sand
casting)
In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in removal
of the part from the mold (2 to 3 for permanent mold
processes)
Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are used

Minor changes in part design can reduce need

for coring
Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using a core:
(a) original design, and (b) redesign


Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish
Significant differences in dimensional
accuracies and finishes can be achieved
in castings, depending on process:
Poor dimensional accuracies and finish
for sand casting
Good dimensional accuracies and finish
for die casting and investment casting

Machining Allowances
Almost all sand castings must be machined to achieve
the required dimensions and part features
Additional material, called the machining allowance,
must be left on the casting in those surfaces where
machining is necessary
Typical machining allowances for sand castings are
around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)


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Manufacturing

Program: B. Tech (Mechatronics)

Internal Continuous Assessment (ICA)

Pre-requisite: Workshop Practice (BTAB02006)

To impart knowledge of various process equipments used in manufacturing processes.

Understand the operations of lathe, milling and drilling machines

Forming processes: Cold and hot working

W. A. J. Chapman , Work Shop Technology- Vol I, II, III, ELBS Publishers,2011

Examples of Cast Parts

Crank handle formed by casting; some areas

Examples of Cast Parts

C-clamps formed by casting (left) and

Examples of Cast Parts

Complex part formed by casting

Figure 11.2 Steps in the production sequence in sand

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes Engineering

metal is poured to produce a casting.

To compensate for metal shrinkage,

Al, CI, Brass,

3. For special casting processes,

Gray Cast Iron

To remove rough surface

Thin section or abnormal

Size of the final pattern

Different types of patterns

Figure 11.3 Types of patterns used in sand casting:

1. SINGLE PIECE PATTERN.

2. SPLIT PATTERN (TWO PIECE )

2. a, THREE PIECE SPLIT PATTERN

3. LOOSE PIECE PATTERN

4. COPE AND DRAG PATTERN

COPE HALF AND DRAG HALF MADE BY

THIS REDUCES THE SEPARATE COPE AND

GENERALLY FOR HIGH SPEED

5. MATCH PLATE PATTERN

Pattern generally of metal and plate making parting line metal/wood .

6. FOLLOW BOARD PATTERN.

Gating system is a part of the pattern.

For large size castings in small numbers. Template of wood

attached to a sweep used.

For rings, wheel rims, large size gears.

10. SKELETON PATTERN.Stickle board used to scrape the excess sand.

11. SHELL PATTERN

12. BUILT UP PATTERN

Also called lagged up patterns- For barrels, pipes,

13. LEFT AND RIGHT PATTERN

For parts to be made in pairs.

Type of pattern depends on:

E- Excellent; G- Good; F-fair, P- Poor

Cores : cores are used to prepare cavity or hollow

Various properties of moulding sand .

Different moulding sand test procedures.

Cupola Furnace operation

Different Casting Processes

many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap

poor finish & tolerance

better accuracy, finish, higher

limited part size

connecting rods, gear

Wide range of metals, sizes,

patterns have low

cylinder heads, brake