FINAL EXAM

MEA 322
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM

PRINCIPLE OF
INSTRUMENT
OPERATIONS

PRINCIPLE OF INSTRUMENT
OPERATIONS

Aircraft instrument are required to monitor a wide variety of

aircraft conditions
Sections deals with primary operating principles of pressure
instruments, gyro instruments, electrically powered resistance
indicators, and temperature indicators
Mechanical principles are applied to instrumentation in both a
primary and supportive role
When mechanical principles are the primary operating principle,
they are often in a design unique to a specific application
Principles of operation are applied to many different types of
instruments systems in later section
Principles of operation associated with mechanically operated
instruments , where the principles are uniquely applied, are
discussed individually in this chapter as the purpose, use and
operations of each mechanical instruments are reviewed

PROVIDE THE PRINCIPLE

OPERATION OF PRESSURE
CONTROL INSTRUMENT
Usually

there is one pointer, which can be adjusted

to the desired cabin altitude by the cabin altitude
set knob
In some cases there is another pointer or a rotating
scale, which also indicates the corresponding
aircraft pressure altitude
A separate knob adjusts the existing altimeter
setting
The barometric setting selected is indicated on a
separate dial segment
The third knob adjusts the cabin rate of altitude
change

WHAT ARE THE PARAMETERS

THAT ARE REQUIRED FOR
HYDRAULIC
SYSTEM USED?
Pressure
Integrity
Flow

rate
Duty cycle
Emergency or reversionary use
Heat load and dissipation

BLEED AIR

NAME AND EXPLAIN MAJOR

AIRCRAFT AIR RELATED
SYSTEMS
USESof BLEED
AIR anti

Ice protection THAT

the provision
hot air to provide
AS
ITS
PRIMARY
icing
of engine,
nacelles SOURCE.
and the wing, tail plane or fin

leading edges; or to dislodge ice that has formed on the

surfaces
ECS and cooling the provision of the main air source
for environmental temperature control and cooling
Pressurization the provision of a means by which the
aircraft may be pressurized, giving the crew and
passengers a more comfortable operating environment

HOW DOES THE AIRCRAFT HIGH

PRESSURE (HP) AIR SOURCE
PROVIDE BLEED AIR WHICH
Auxiliary
FORMS
PRIMARY
FOR
power unit SOURCE
(APU)
Anti ice protection
AIRCRAFT
RELATED SYSTEM?
Engine
ECS

( Environmental Control System )

Pressurization

 All three of the basics gyro instruments are

available in designs that rely on electrical
power for operation
Normally require on of four types of power
source :
14 Vdc
28 Vdc
120 Vac
208 Vac

 Many of older and most of lower priced gyro instruments

are operated by a flow of air moving over buckets on the
rotor disk
Flow of air can be caused by drawing air through the
instrument with a venture or vacuum pump or by forcing
air through the instrument from a pressure source
Air inlet to the instruments should be filtered to keep
contaminants out of the instruments and out of pump
Vacuum pump either wet pump or dry pump design
wet pump relies on engine oil to lubricate the
operating mechanism
dry pump relies on the proper selection of construction
materials to provide lubrication

 Venturi
generates a vacuum by moving air through a restricted
passage as air accelerate through the passage, sidewall
pressure is reduced and air can be drawn into the
venture core through a hole placed on the side of the
tube at the restriction if hole in the side venture throat
is connected to a pneumatically operated gyro
instrument, air drawn through the instruments, spins the
gyro and cause instrument t operate
Simplest type of vacuum pump normally found on
aircraft not intended for instrument flight
Primary advantage simple installation, no operation
expense, reliable
Drawbacks requiring 100 mph of airspeed to operate
the instrument before flight, and the possibility of the
instruments being closed by ice
Comes in 2 sizes designated by the amount of suction
they can generate

 Used on most turbine powered airplane to

power indicating and control system
needing information about the ambient air
and aircraft speed
Input - pitot pressure, static pressure,
ambient air temperature
Info processed by a computer and signals
are sent to various systems so that the
aircraft performs properly

ANTI ICE CONTROL

PROVIDE THE PRINCIPALS OF

WING ANTI ICE CONTROL.
PROVIDE DIAGRAM TOO
The

flow of hot air to the outer wing

leading edges is controlled by the wing
Anti Ice Valve.
Flow is modulated by the electrically
enabled anti icing controller allowing air
to pass down the leading edge heating
duct
Heating duct take the form of a pipe with
holes allow flow of hot air onto the inner
surface of the leading edge.

Air is bled out into the leading edge slat section

to heat the structure before being dumped
overboard

ANTI SKID SYSTEM AND

DIAGRAM

SPECIFY THE BASIC

FUNCTIONS PERFORMED BY
ANTI-SKID
Touch-down SYSTEM.
protection, which prevents

landing with the brakes on

Skid control, which ensures maximum
braking efficiency
Locked-wheel protection, prevents a
wheel speed decreasing to zero because
of runway condition

EXPLAIN THE ELECTRONIC ANTISKID

SYSTEM WITH ADAPTIVE PRESSURE
CONTROL. PROVIDE DIAGRAM/SKETCH.

The electronic control box contains individual wheel deceleration rate skid
detection circuits with cross references between wheels and changeover
circuits to couple the control valve across the aircraft should the loss of a
wheel speed signal occur.

If a skid develops the system disconnects braking momentarily and the

adaptive pressure coordination valve ensures that brake pressure is re-applied
at low pressure after the skid than the level which allowed skid to occur

A progressive increase in brake pressure between skids attempt to maintain a

high level of pressure and braking efficiency

The adaptive pressure control valve dumps hydraulic pressure from the brake
when its first stage solenoid valve is energized by the commencement of a skid
signal

On wheel speed recovery, the solenoid is de-energized and the brake pressure
re-applied at a reduced pressure level, depending on the time interval of the
skid

Brake pressure then rises at a controlled rate in search of the maximum

braking level, until the next incipient skid signal occurs

LANDING GEAR
SYSTEM
RAYTHEON / BAE1000
DIAGRAM

ANTI SKID SYSTEM

AND DIAGRAM

BRIEFLY DESCRIBE THE

OPERATION OF AN ANTISKID
SYSTEM

Consist of an electronic control box, wheel-speedsensor transducers, dual servo valves, failure
indicating lights, and system arming switch
It has a locked-wheel protection feature which
prevents braking action prior to wheel rotation.
The system is controlled by a 2-position, 3-pole switch
that will arm or deactivate the system and reset the
indicating lights.
When the system is deactivate, the wheel-brake
system is controlled directly through the brake control
valves by means of brake pedals.
When the antiskid system is armed, the brakes are
controlled by the dual-servo valves, which meter the
hydraulic fluid pressure supplied by the brake control
valves through the pilots application of brake pedals

WHY IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO LAND AN

AIRPLANE WITH WHEELS LOCKED IF
ANTISKID SYSTEM IS ARMED?
Antiskid system armed wheel brakes will be
release no hydraulic pressure will be allowed
beyond the dual servo valves with the brake
pedal depressed
The system would automatically and rapidly
apply brake pressure compatible with airplane
and runway conditions
It may or may not result in blown tires, and also
wheel fires, and also uncommanded departure of
the runway (skidding on the runway ) , if the
airplane is able to land with locked wheels

 Provide the pressure necessary to operated

such instruments as the altimeter, airspeed
indicator, and vertical-speed indicator

*FUNCTION - the task that a particular

role/system is assigned to accomplished
*PURPOSE the Why behind every function

 It is a combined system that utilizes

the static air pressure, and the
dynamic pressure due to the motion
of the aircraft through the air

 Removed through baffles in pitot

head and drains in the pressure
line are used to remove the
water

Altimeter slows to respond

VSI response degraded
Airspeed indicator show inaccurate
indication following altitude change

This probe also incorporate static vents flush

mounted
The static vents are mounted so that they are
not affected by impact air, so they sense
atmospheric pressure
The pitot inlet senses impact pressure so
faces directly forward into the oncoming air
stream
Pitot impact pressure represent how fast the
aircraft is moving through the air

Exhaust heating systems

Combustion heater systems

 Exhaust heating systems

Fresh outside air is forced by ram pressure through the muff and around the
exhaust stacks
The stacks isolate the exhaust gas from the fresh air but allow the heat
transfer
To vary the temperature, the pilot controls a source of additional outside air
The outside air mixes with the heated air to cool it to the desired temperature
Combustion heater systems
A spray nozzle used to send regulated, atomized fuel/air mixture into heater
combustion chamber
A high-voltage spark plug powered by the aircraft electrical system provides
continuous ignition
The fuel/air mixture enter the combustion chamber tangent to the chambers
surface
This forces the airflow to spin and mix with itself, causing a stable, continuous
flow pattern

 Heat exchanger for small, single

aircraft
Combustion heater for larger aircraft
Compressor bleed air systems for
turbine-engine-powered aircraft

 It consist of a heater muff around the

engine exhaust stacks, an air scoop to
draw ram air into heater muff, ducting
to carry the heated air into the cabin
and a valve to control flow of heated
air
This system is the most basic type of
heat exchanger

This type of heater burns airplane fuel in a combustion chamber or tube to develop the required
heat

Air flowing around the tube is heated and carried through ducting to the cabin

Fuel is routed from fuel cross-feed line through a filter and a solenoid supply valve to the
diaphragm-type heater fuel pump

The heater fuel pump and all external fittings on the heater are enclosed in metal housing that
are vented and drained as a precaution against fire in the event of leaky fittings

Fuel passes from the heater fuel pump through a solenoid valve to the combustion chamber
spray nozzle

When cabin heater switch is placed in HEAT position, current is supplied to the combustion airblower and to the ventilating fan

Fan actuate cam operated breaker point which start the spark plug firing

As combustion air-blower air increase, the vane type valve at the inlet of the combustion
chamber opens this actuates a micro-switch which in turn operate the solenoid valve thus
allowing fuel to spray into the heater, where the spark plug ignites the fuel

When the heated air flowing from the heater to the cabin exceeds the temperature for which the
thermostat is set, the thermostat closes the solenoid valve and stops fuel flow to the heater

The heater thermostat cools and the solenoid valve opens again to allow fuel to flow to the
heater

Heated air flows from the heater, and the thermostat again causes the solenoid valve to close

Cycling on and off continues and heater thereby maintains an even temperature in cabin

 gasoline

 Dryer is essential in a vapor cycle

system in such a way that they
absorb moisture (Water) from the
humidity in the air that may have
gotten inside the system during
manufacture, assembly or even
during service

 Kinetic cooling occurs when the aircraft skin heats

up due to friction between itself and air molecules
Solar heating affects both cabin and equipment
bays on ground standby
Avionics heat loads development of high density
digital electronics have increase the heat load per
unit volume of avionic equipment overall increase
in heat load
Airframe system heat loads heat produced by the
environmental control system itself
Air conditioning demands for design consideration
for providing air conditioning in the cockpit

Engine oil
Hydraulic oil
Gearbox oil

 It has a higher heat capacity

It has higher heat transfer
coefficient

 Fuel cooling systems have limited

applications due to the fact that fuel
flow is variable and is greatly reduced
when the engines are throttled back

 It is an individual air-distribution
system that routes only the cold
air from the air conditioning packs
to individually regulated outlets in
the control and passenger cabins
Its air source is cold air

 It is an indication that there is water

in the system where it has frozen at
the expansion valve and then
stopped the flow of refrigerant

 The process of reducing the

temperature of a liquid below the
temperature at which it was
condensed, the pressure being
held constant

 Cabin pressurization is achieved by a cabin pressure control

valve which is installed in the cabin wall to control cabin
pressure to the required value depending on the aircraft
altitude by regulating the flow of air from the cabin
For aircraft where oxygen is not used routinely and where
the crew and passengers are free to move around as in a
long range passenger airliner, the cabin will be pressurized
so that a cabin altitude of about 8000 ft is never exceeded
For aircraft with the crew in fixed positions, using oxygen
routinely as in a military aircraft, the pressurization system
is usually designed so that the cabin altitude does not
exceed about 20000 ft.

 The altitude-limit components of the

positive pressure-relief valve
system/the outflow valve

 At 10000 ft or 3048 m

To provide the engine with fuel (in a

form suitable for combustion)
To control the flow to the required
quantity necessary for easy starting,
acceleration and stable running

Stores fuel
Deliver the proper amount of clean
fuel at right pressure to meet the
demands of the engine / deliver a
uniform flow of clean fuel under
constant pressure to meet all engine
demands

 Fuel systems must be

constructed and arranged to
ensure a flow of fuel at a rate and
pressure established for proper
engine and auxiliary power-unit
function under each likely
operating condition.

 Must be designed and arranged to

prevent the ignition of fuel vapor
within the system by direct or swept
lightning strikes to area where these
are likely to occur
Design must be such that fuel vapor
cannot be ignited at fuel vent outlets

 A tank that is a basic structure of the aircraft

Commonly located in the wing of fuselage, but may be
located in other location such as the horizontal stabilizer
Tanks cannot be removed because they are an integral
and permanent part of the aircraft structure
Formed by using structural members of the wing to form
a fuel-tight tank
Normally constructed of the same material as the
surrounding aircraft structure and sealed with a fuel
proof sealing compound

Large volumes of the fuel must

be delivered to the engines at
high pressure. Hence pressurefeel fuel system provides the
suitable way for fuel feed.

 Fuel flow from the tanks through

separate fuel lines to the fuel
selector valve
After leaving the selector valve, the
fuel flow through the fuel strainer
and into the electric fuel pump
The fuel boost pump supplied fuel
for starting the engine

 It is held in place by several

buttons or snap which attach the
bladder to the top, bottom and sides
of the compartment.

 They must withstand and internal

test pressure of 3.5 psi [ 24.13 kPa ]
without failure or leakage and at least
125% of pressure developed in the
tank from any ram air effect.

 It is installed in a compartment designed to hold the

tank
Tank must be fuel-tight but the compartment in
which it fits is not fuel-tight
The tank is made of aluminum component welded
together
Compartment in which tank is installed is structurally
complete and does not rely on the fuel tank for
structural integrity
Tanks are normally held in the compartment by
several padded straps
Found in more inexpensive light aircraft and on many
reciprocating-engine powered transports

Wipe the insides of the bladder

carefully with an oily rag leaving a
film of engine oil on its inside
surface

 For transport-type aircraft at least

0.10 percent of the total tank
capacity or 1/16 gallon ( 0.24 L ) ;
whichever is greater.
Other types of aircraft 0.25 percent
of the tank capacity or 1/16 gallon
( 0.24 L ) ; whichever is greater.

 Tank geometry done by mechanical profiling to

account for tank shape and provide linear output
Attitude envelope most significant factor high
accuracy may be desirable for refueling when on
the ground
Permittivity variations may adversely affect
gauging accuracy reference units used to
compensate for the varying temperature within
the fuel

 Space adjacent to tank surfaces must be ventilated to avoid

fume accumulation due to minor leakage
If tank is in sealed compartment, ventilation may be limited
to drain holes large enough to prevent excessive pressure
resulting from altitude changes
Each fuel tank must be vented from the top part of the
expansion space
Each vent outlet must be located and constructed to
minimize the possibility of its being obstructed by ice or
other foreign matter and to prevent the siphoning of fuel
during normal operation
Venting capacity must allow the rapid relief of excess
pressure differences between the interior and exterior of the
tank

 The rotor holds the sliding vanes and is installed in the liner with its
axis of rotation eccentric to the axis of the liner
When rotor is turning, the vanes maintain a constant with the
surface of the liner
Fuel enters the inlet port and is forced by sliding vanes through the
outlet port
The floating pin aligns the sliding vanes against the surface of the
liner
In one position the two lower vanes extend from the rotor, whereas
the two upper vanes are forced into the rotor by the surface of the
surface

 It provides a signal to the cockpit

notifying the pilot or crew member
that is a particular filter is bypassing
fuel or is nearing a condition where it
will bypass fuel

 It uses pump to move fuel the fuel tank to the engine fuel-control
component
Arrangement is required because the fuel tanks are located too low for
sufficient head pressure to be generated or because the tanks are some
distance fro the engine
Fuel flows from the tanks through separate fuel lines to the fuel-selector
valve
After leaving the selector valve, the fuel flows through the fuel strainer
and into the electric fuel pump
Engine driven fuel pump is in parallel with the electric pump without the
need for a bypass valve
The fuel boost pump supplies fuel for starting the engine, and the
engine-driven pump supplies the fuel pressure necessary for normal
operation.

 They are needed to prevent fuel

filters from being clogged by ice
particles that were trying to pass
through the fuel line

 Fuel jettison system is required for transport category

and general aviation aircraft if the maximum takeoff
weight exceeds the maximum landing weight
A fuel jettison system must be able to jettison a large
proportion of the fuel in order to reduce weight rapidly
in order to get the acceptable landing weight most
aircraft are not stressed to land with full fuel load
This fuel jettisoning system is usually divided into two
separate independent systems, one for each wing, so
that lateral stability can be maintained by jettisoning
fuel from the heavy wing if it is necessary to do so

 To dump fuel overboard during an inflight emergency due to reduce the

weight of the airplane to allowable
landing weight
To dump all the fuel except the
reverse quantity required for landing

 Oil flow freely to all bearing

surfaces and the engine will be
able to turn on easily

Antistatic agent
Antioxidants
Corrosion inhibitors
Fuel system icing inhibitors
Biocides
Metal deactivator

 Gravity feed fuel system

i. High wing aircraft with a fuel tank in each wing are common
ii. With the tanks above the engine, gravity is used to deliver the fuel
iii.The space above the liquid fuel is vented to maintain atmospheric pressure on
the fuel as tank empties
iv.The two tanks are also vented to each other to ensure equal pressure when
both tanks feed the engine
v. A single screened outlet on each tank feed lines that connect to either fuel
shutoff valve or multi-position selector valve
vi.The shutoff valve has two positions : fuel ON and fuel OFF
vii.If installed, the selector valve provide four options : fuel shutoff to the engine ;
fuel feed from the right wing tank only ; fuel feed from the left fuel tank only ;
fuel feed to the engine from both tanks simultaneously
viii.Downstream of the shutoff valve or selector valve, the fuel passes through a
main system strainer this often has a drain function to remove sediment and
water
ix.From there, it flows to the carburetor or to the primer pump for engine starting
x. Having no fuel pump, the gravity feed system is the simplest aircraft fuel
system

 Pump feed fuel system

i. Low and mid-wing single reciprocating engine aircraft cannot utilize gravity-feed
fuel systems because the fuel tanks are not located above the engine
ii. Instead, one or more pumps are used to move the fuel from tanks to the engine
iii. Each tank has a line from the screened outlet a selector valve
iv. However, fuel cannot be drawn from both tanks simultaneously ; if fuel is
depleted in one tank, the pump would draw air from that tank instead of fuel
from the fuel tank
v. Since fuel is not drawn from both tanks at the same time, there is no need to
connect the tank vent spaces together
vi.From the selector valve ( LEFT, RIGHT or OFF ), fuel flows through the main
strainer where it can supply the engine primer
vii.Then it flows downstream to the fuel pumps
viii.Typically, one electric and one engine-driven fuel pump are arranged in parallel
ix.They draw the fuel from the fuel tank and deliver it to the carburetor
x. The two pumps provide redundancy
xi.The engine-driven fuel pumps acts as the primary pump
xii.The electric pump can supply fuel should the other fail
xiii.The electric pump also supplies fuel pressure while starting and is used to
prevent vapor lock during flight at high altitude

 Fuel cross feed system is flexible when used in

multiengine airplane
Should an engine fail, its fuel is immediately available
to supply the demand of the other engine
If the fuel tank becomes damaged and loses fuel, the
corresponding engine can be supplied with fuel from
other tanks through the cross-feed manifold
This system also allow aircraft to transfer fuel from
any tank to any other tank for the purpose of
balancing the weight distribution and to maintain an
acceptable position for the airplanes center of gravity

 Drawbacks/disadvantage if the
environment air supply from the engine
stops then so does the supply of oxygen
Compensation small backup of oxygen
systems are required for emergency
situations to enable pilot to descend to
altitudes where oxygen levels are high
enough for breathing

 The MSOC uses air taken from the environment control

systems as their source of gas
Most of the gases in air have larger molecules than
oxygen
These molecules are sieved out of the air mixture until
mostly oxygen remains
A continuous supply of oxygen can be made available
without needing to replenish the traditional oxygen
storage system after each flight
A residual inert gas can be used for fuel tank
pressurization and inerting

CONTROL SUFRACES
COMERCIAL AND
MILLITARY AIRCRAFT

AUTOMATIC BRAKING

EXPLAIN THE AUTOMATIC BRAKE

CONTROL MECHANISM AND THE
PRE-REQUISITE
THAT
MUST BE
During automatic braking
a two-position
three-way solenoid
valve isAUTO
energized following
SATISFIED
BEFORE
wheel spin-up
feed system pressure. This is
BRAKING
IS to
INITIATED?
done through shuttle valves directly to the
anti-skid valves where it is modulated and
passed to the brakes. Signals from the auto
braking circuit are responsible for modulation
of pressure at the brake to match preselected
deceleration

Pre-requisites

that must be satisfied

before auto-braking is initiated
Auto-brake switch must be ON and
required deceleration selected
Anti-skid switch must be ON and
operative
Throttle must be correctly positioned
Hydraulic pressure must be available
Brake pedals must not be depressed
Wheel must be spun up