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SEMANTICS
LOGICAL NOTATION
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ACKYTOFFVUXOMI
NIM. 15783546

WHAT IS LOGIC?
Logic is a word that means many things to different people.
Many everyday uses of the words logic and logical could
be replaced by expressions such as reasonable behavior
and reasonable.
Logic is essentially the systematic study of how reasoning
and inference work in determining validity and truth. This is
extremely helpful in the world of semantics because
determining the truth and validity of an argument can help
us understand the meaning of what is being said more
clearly.
Logic deals with meanings in a language system, not with
actual behavior of any sort. So, the study of logic help us
better understand these arguments, whether or not we
should believe them.

WHAT IS LOGICAL NOTATION?

The initial difficulty in talking about propositions is that we need to
invent a way or representing them unambiguously. One needs a
notation that will provide, for two clearly different representations
for the two different meanings of a two-ways ambiguously and so
on
The notation we adopt here is closer to English and therefore
easier for beginner to handle, than the rather more technical
notations found in some logic books and generally in the
advanced literature of logic.
We assume that simple proposition, like simple sentences, have
just one predicator, which we write in CAPITAL LETTERS. The
arguments of the predicator we represent by single lower-case
letters putting one of these letters before the predicator and the
others after the predicator, usually the preferred English Word
order. Anything that is not a predicator or referring expression is
simply omitted from logical notation.

2.1 Unambiguously Notation

The initial difficulty in talking about propositions is that we need to
invent a way or representing them unambiguously. One needs a
notation that will provide, for two clearly different representations for
the two different meanings of a two-ways ambiguously and so on.
E.g. John and Mary are married is ambiguous
Being paraphrase able either as:
John and Mary are married to each other or as
John is married to someone and Mary is married to
someone.
John == argument
Mary == argument
Married == predicator
Someone == argument
In Logical Notation, the first interpretation (proposition) here could be
represented by the formula:
(j MARRIED TO m) & (m MARRIED TO j)
And the second interpretation would be represented by the formula :
(x (j MARRIED TO x)) & (y (m MARRIED TO y))

2.2 logical Formula

The logical form of an expression is typically comprised of two parts: a formal
syntax and a formal semantics. Formal syntax is a set of symbols that are
subject to rules for proper combinations. They are used to represent the content
of expressions.
In propositional logic there are symbols for representing the content of the
sentence; propositions and connectives that express the combination of
propositions. The symbols p, q, r represent propositions and the symbols (V
(or), ~ (not), & (and), (if, then)) are used to represent the connectives.
These formulae are very bare, stripped down to nothing but names and
predicators. The reasons for eliminating elements such as forms of the verb be,
articles (a, the), tense markers (past, present) and certain prepositions (e.g. to
in Phil introduced Mary to Jack) are partly a matter of serious principle and
partly a matter of convenience.
e.g. Andrew is a nephew of Ronald.
Margaret is looking for Billy.
Walter is beside Harriet.

a NEPHEW r
m LOOK-FOR b
w BESIDE h

Logical Formula
Beside the tense, Verb be sometimes expresses the identity
predicate (i.e. the predicate relating the referents of two referring
expression in an equative sentence. In our logical formulae, we will
represent the identity predicate with an equals sign =, and we will
simply omit anything corresponding to any others use of the verb be.
e.g. Clark Kent is Superman.
Clark Kent is a reporter

ck = s
ck REPORTER

Tobby Mcguirre is Spiderman.

Tobby Mcguirre is a photographer.

tm = s
tm PHOTOGRAPHER

2.3 Simple Proposition

Every Simple proposition is representable by a single
PREDICATOR, drawn from the predicates in the language, and
number of ARGUMENTS, drawn from the names in the language.
The implies, among other things, that no formula for a simple
proposition can have TWO (or more) predicators, and it cannot
have anything which is neither a predicate nor a name.
e.g. j LOVE m is a well formed formula for a simple proposition
j m is not a well-formed formula, because it contains no
predicator
j IDOLIZE ADORE m is not a well formed formula for a simple
proposition, because it contains two predicators
j and h LOVE m is not well formed formula for a simple
proposition because it contains something (and) which
neither a predicator nor a name.

2.4 LOGICAL NOTATION

Logical Notation is no more illuminating than Chinese to a person who knows
neither. It provides one type of formula (which we shall not meet here) for
generic sentences and a different type of formula for non-generic sentences. - -One can see from the formula itself what type of meaning it has.
- One does not need to appeal to the context as one often does in interpreting
a sentence in natural language.
A simple formula consisting of a name and a place predicate is true of situation
in which the referent of the name is a member of extension of the predicate.
E.g. Below is a picture of a tiny fragment.

The Formula ed STAND (corresponding to the sentence ED is standing)

is true of this situation.
The Formula mo CAT is false of this situation.

CONCLUSION
We have presented a logical notation for a simple
proposition. A well-formed formula for a simple
proposition contains a single predicator, drawn from the
predicate in the language, and number of arguments,
drawn from the names of language. The notation we have
given contains
no elements corresponding to articles (a,
The advantages use Logical Notations
the), certain preposition, certain instance of the verb be
1. By using logical notation this makes for representations that are exact and
asunambiguous.
these make
no contribution to the truth conditions of
Logical notation uses the restrictive theory of meaning by
the
containing
building
meaning them.
from the bottom up and relies on only what is known to a
part of the model.
2. The account of meaning is formal. It is independent of the content and can
be generally and mechanistically applied. It provides the general structure
of meaning, not specific content.
3.

As a formal meaning it can used to help solve standard semantic problems

such as the relations between and with expressions and their likeness of
meaning.(Frawley 27)

Disadvantage Logical Notation:

1.

2.

Formal systems are categorical, meaning that the objects and operations
within the system have distinct boundaries. Objects cannot overlap and
categorically exclude another. For example, ~ logical negation reverses the
truth value of whatever it attaches to. There is no gradience of truth value or
of quantification in predicate logic, however, ordinary language is full of
gradient phenomena (Frawley 30)
Content less is associated with formal semantics in that specific content is
not given. The problem that arises with this is that content does matter for a
negation is possible because of the content of the negative expression
concerned.(Frawley 31)

THANK YOU

5/10/16