Fluid Mechanics

Lectuer:Sun Gang

Introduction
1-2 Definition of a Fluid
The solid object will no change
inside the a closed container
The liquid will change its shape
to conform to that of the
container and will take on the
same boundaries as the
container up to the maximum
depth of the liquid

Fluid mechanics:the behavior of

fluids at rest and in motion
A fluid is a substance that deforms
continuously under the application
of a shear(tangential) stress no
matter how small the shear stress
may be
A solid deforms when a shear stress
is applied does not continue to
increase with the time

F/A

Dye maker to outline a fluid

element

Introduction
The deformation of solid
Experience a Deformation
Finite(solid)

Continuously increasing
Shear stress is proportional
To the rate of change of
The deformation

At the atomic and molecular level:

Solid:the molecular are packed so closely together that their
nuclei and electrons form a rigid geometric
structure,gluedtogether by powerful intermolecular forces.
Liquid:the space between molecular is large,the intermolecular
forces allow enough movement of the molecules to give the
liquid its fluidity
Gas:the spacing between molecular is much larger, the
influence of the intermolecular forces is much weaker,and the
motion of the molecules occurs rather freely throughout the
gas

Introduction
1-4 Basic Equation
The ideal gas equation of state

p RT

(1.1)

The Basic laws governing the flow

motion include:
1 The conservation of mass
2 Newtons second law of
motion
3 The principle of angular momentum
4 The first law of theromdynamics
5 The second law of theromdynamics

Introduction
1-5 Methods of analysis

The system that you are

attempting to analyze
Basic mechanics : free-body
diagram
thermodynamics: closed
system(terms: system and
control volume)

1-5.1 System and Control Volume

A system is defined as a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass; the

system boundaries separate the system from the surroundings(fixed or
movable), no mass crosses the system boundaries.
A control volume is an arbitrary volume in space through which fluid
flows. The geometric boundary of the comtrol volume is called the
control surface.(include real or imaginary)

1-5.2 Differential versus Integral Approach

The basic laws can be formulated in terms of infinitesimal or finite
systems and control volumes.
The first case the resulting equation are differential equation.
The integral formulations of basic laws are easier to treat analytically,
for deriving the control volume equation , we need the basic laws of
mechanics and thermodynamics ,formulated in terms of finite systems

1-5.3 Methods of Description

Use of the basic equations applied to a fixed , identifiable quantity of
mass, keep track of identifiable elements of mass(in particle
mechanics: the Lagrangian method of description)
Example: th eapplication of Newtons second law to a particle of fixed
mass

Consider a fluid to be composed of a very large number of particle

whose motion must be described
With control volume analyses, the Eulerian on the properties of a flow
at a given point in space as a function of time

1-6 Dimension and Unit

The physical quantities of engineering problems include units:
length,time,mass, and temperature as dimension
The primary quantities(length,time,mass, and temperature as
dimension )and secondary quantities (dimensions are expressible in
terms of the dimension of the primary quantities)

1-6 Dimension and Unit

1-6.1 System of Dimension

a) mass(M), length(L), time(t),

temperature(T)(MLtT)
b) Force(F), length(L), time(t),
temperature(T)(FLtT)
c) Force(F),mass(M) ,length(L),
time(t), temperature(T)
(FMLtT)

1-6.2 system of unit

a. SI, MLtT(primary)
unit of mass(kg)
length (meter)
time (second) s
temperature (kelvin)
Absolute metric
system of unit

Secondary dimension
Force(N)
1N=1kg. m/s2

1dyne=1.g.cm/s2

 FLtT, British
Gravitational system:
force(1bf); length(ft);
time(second);temperat
ure(degree Rankine)

1 slug = 1lbf.s2/ft

 FMLtT (English
Engineering system)
force(1bf) mass(lbm)
length(foot) time
(second) temperature
(degree Rankine)

gc=32.2 ft.lbm/(lbf. S2)

4. State the three basic system of dimension

5. The typical units of physical quantities in the SI, British
Gravitational, and English Engineering system of units

FLtT: 1bf
Mass: 1slug = 1lbf.s2/ft
FMLtT: gc=32.2 ft.lbm/(lbf. S2)
SI: 1N=1kg. m/s2

Chapter 2 Fundamental Concept

Mechanics and thermodynamics

2-1 Fluid as a continuum

The average or macroscopic effects of many
molecules.continuum(classic fluid
mechanics)(p, ,T,V is continuous function
of position and time)
the mean free path of the molecules is same
order of magnitude as the smallest
significant characteristic dimension of the
problem(rarefied gas flow)

For determine the density at a point , In fig.2.1 point

C(x,y,z)s density is defined as mass per unit volume, the
mean density within volume V would be given by =
m/V, at point C

m
C lim '
V V V

(2 1)

( x, y , z , t )

( 2 2)

2-2 velocity field

V V ( x, y , z , t )
Steady flow
( p, , V .....)
0
t

V ui vj wk
unsteady flow
( p, , V .....)
0
t

2-2.1 one-,two-,and three-Dimensional flows

2-2.2 Timelines, Pathlines, streaklines, and

Streamlines
Visual representation of a flow field: TL; PL,
STKL, STML
Timeline:a number of adjacent fluid particles in
the flow field are marked at given instant, they
form a line in the field
Pathline: the path or trajectory traced out by
moving fluid particle, the line traced out by the
particle

Streakline:a number of identifiable fluid particles in the

flow passed through one fixed location in space , the line
joining these fluid particles is defined as a streakline
Streamline:are lines drawn in the flow field so that at a
given instant they are tangent to the direction of flow at
every point in the flow field. No flow across a streamline

2-3 Stress Field

Surface and body forces:

body force:gravitational body force gdV

Stress force (nine quantities)to specify the state of
stress in a fluid
Imagine any surface within a flowing fluid, and
consider the contact force applied to the fluid on
one side by that
on the other,surrounding point C,
the surface A

the unit normal

vector outwardly , the force, n ,

acting on F nay be resolved in two components, one

normal to and the other tangent to the area. The A

normal stress nand a shear stress n are then defined
Fn
as:
lim
(2.6)
n

An 0

An

Ft
n lim
An 0 A
n

(2.7)

the rectangular coordinates the stress acting on the

planes whose outwardly drawn normals are in the x,y, or
z directions, The first subscript indicate the plane on
which the stress acts. The second one indicates the
direction in which the stress acts
Fx
Ax 0 A
x
Fy
xy lim
Ax 0 A
x
xx lim

Fz
xz lim
Ax 0 A
x

(2.8)

The stress at a point is specified by the nine components

xx
yx

zx

xy
yy
zy

xz

yz
zz

stress
denote the normal stress and shear

2-4 viscosity
We have defined a fluid as a substance that
continues to deform under the action of a shear
stress. Consider the behavior of a fluid element
between the two infinite plates
yx

Fx
dFx
lim

A 0 A
dAy
y
y

 d
deformation rate lim

t 0 t
dt
l ut
l y
u
d du

t y
dt dy
2-4.1 Newtonian fluid
Fluid as water,air, and gasoline are Newtonian fluid

du
yx
dy

The different Newtonian fluid will deform at different

rates under the action of the same applied shear stress;
the water, glycerin exhibits a much larger resistance to
deformation than water

Newtons law of viscosity is given for one-dimensional flow by

yx

du

dy

The dimension, [F/L2],du/dy are [1/t], [Ft/L2]; in the SI system,

the unit of viscosity are kg/(ms) or Pas( 1Pas = 1Ns/m2)(page
26)
/
The kinematic viscosity(
)[L2/t]is represented.
Viscosity data for a number of common Newtonian fluid are
given in Appendix A. Note that for gases, viscosity increases
with temperature, whereas for liquids, viscosity decreases with
increasing temperature.

2-4.2 Non-Newtonian fluids

Fluids in which shear stress is not directly
proportional to deformation rate are nonNewtonian flow: toothpaste and Lucite paint
yx

du n
du n 1 du
du
k( ) k( )

dy
dy
dy
dy

(2.11,12)

2-5 surface Tension

Surface tension is the apparent interfacial tensile
stress(force per unit length of interface) that acts
whenever a liquid has a density interface, such as
when the liquid contacts a gas, vapor,second
liquid, or solid
Contact angle between the liquid and solid is
defined When the contact angle is less than 900, the
liquid tends to wet the solid surface as shown in
fig2.10a, and the tensile stress due to surface
tension tends to pull the liquid free surface up near
the solid, forming a curved meniscus.

The contact angle>90, the liquid can not wet the solid; surface
tension tend sto pull the liquid free surface down along the solid.
The magnitude and direction of surface tension against a solid
surface depend on the liquid and solid

2-6 Description and classification of fluid

motions
Continuum fluid mechanics
Inviscid-(compressible and incompressible)
Viscous-laminar(internal and external)

-turbulent(internal and external)

2-6.1 Viscosity and Inviscid flow

yx

du
dy

2-6.2 Laminar and Turbulent flows

The basis of flow
structure
Smooth motion in
laminae or layers
Random, three-D
motions of fluid
particles in addition to
the mean motion

2-6.3 Compressible and Incompressible Flows

The variations in density are negligible are termed
incompressible(liquid)
Density variations within a flow are not negligible,
the flow is called compressible(gas)
M=V/c; M<0.3, M>0.3

2-6.4 Internal and External Flows

Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces called internal
or duct flows. Flows over bodies immersed in an
unbounded fluid are termed external flows.
The incompressible flow through a pipe, the nature of the
flow(laminar and turbulent) is determined by the Reynolds
number:the ratio between inertial force and viscous force
Re V D /
Incompressible flow through pipe
Laminar flow: Re<2300
The flow over a semi-infinite flat plate,
laminar:Re<500000

Chapter 3 Fluid Static

Absence of shear stresses, fluid either at rest or in rigidbody motion are able to sustain only normal stresses,
fluid element do not deform.

3-1 The Basic equation of fluid statics

p
p dy
PL p ( y L y ) p ( )
y
y
2

The right face:

p
p dy
( yR y) p
y
y 2

p
p p
dFs ( i
j k )dxdydz
x
y
z
PL p

dV

Newtons second law to a fluid element of mass dm=

Body forces(gravity) and surfaces forces are applied to
fluid element(no shear
include pressure force)
stress,

The body force is dFB gdm gdV gdxdydz

Pressure is scalar field, p=p(x,y,z),using Taylor series
expansion, the pressure of left face of the element is:

The gradient of a scalar field gives a vector field

dFs gradp (dxdydz ) pdxdydz

dF dFB dFs (p g )dV

dF
p g
dV

For a static fluid,

(3.1)

(3.2)

a0
dF ma 0

p g 0
(3.3)

p
p
0
0
x
y
dp
g
dz

p
g
z

(3.5)
(3.6)

Restriction (1) Static fluid

(2) Gravity is the only body force
(3) The z axis is vertical and upward

3-2 The standard atmosphere

3-3 Pressure variation in a static fluid
dP
g
dz
3-3.1 incompressible liquid:Manometers

p0

dp gdz

z0 z h

z0

p p0 g ( z0 z )

p p0 gh

(3.7)

Incompressible liquid:manometers

p A pB 1 gh1
pB pC 2 gh2
p A pC 2 gh2 1 gh1

3-3.2 Gases (compressible fluid)

The pressure varies with altitude or temperature

pg
pg
dp gdz
dz
dz
RT
R(T0 mz )
mz g / mR
T g / mR
p p0 (1 )
p0 ( )
T0
T0

T T0 mz

(3.8)

3-5 Hydrostatic force on submerged surfaces

Determine the resultant force acting on a submerged surface we
must specify:
(1) The magnitude of the force
(2) The direction of the force
(3) The line of action of the force

3-5.1 hydrostatic force on a plane submerged surface

The hydrostatic force on any element of the surface must act normal

to the surface
dF pdA
(3.9)

The resultant force acting on the surface is found by summing the

contributions of the infinitesimal forces over the entire area.

FR pdA
(3.10)
A

dp
g
dh

p p0 gdh p0 gh

h y sin

The point of application of the resultant force(the center of

pressure) must be such that the moment of the resultant force about
any axis is equal to the moment of the
' distributed force about the
r
same axis, the position
as
vector is designated

'

r FR r dF r pdA

'
r x 'i y ' j

r xi yj

Substitute into Eq.(3.11) gives

y ' FR ypdA
A

dA dAk

and

(3.11)

x ' FR xpdA(3.12)
A

1. The resultant force is the sum of the infinitesimal forces (3.10)

2. The moment of the resultant force about any axis is equal to the
moment of the distributed force about the same axis(3.12)
In evaluating the hydrostatic force acting on a plane submerged
surface, the resultant force and moment is:

1. The magnitude of FR is given by

FR FR pdA
(3.13)

2. The direction of FR is normal to the surface

3. For a surface in the xy plane, the line of FR passes through the

point x,y ( the center of pressure), where

y FR ypdA
'

and

x FR xpdA
'

3-5.2 Computing equation for pressure force and point of

application on a plane submerged surface
The pressure distribution on the lower surface is uniform ambient
pressure p0 , on the upper surface is given by

p p0 gh

The magnitude of the resultant force on the upper surface is

FR pdA p0 A g sin ydA

A

The yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of the area A thus

FR p0 A g sin yc A ( p0 ghc ) A pC A

(3.14)

To find the expressions for coordinates of the center of pressure , the

moment of the resultant force about any axis must be equal to the
moment of the distributed force about the same axis
yFR ypdA
A

yg sin yc A yghdA g sin y 2 dA

A

I xx y dA
2

I xx

I xx
y yc
Ay c

(3.15a )

Is the second moment of the area about the centroid x axis

The same ruler:

x xc

I xy
Ay c

(3.15b)

3-5.3 Hydrostatic force on a curved submerged surface

dF pdA
(3.9)

FR pdA
(3.10)
A

FR iFRx jFR y kFRz

(3.16)

FRx FR i dF i pdA i pdAx

A

Ax

In general in the l direction the component of resultant force is:

FRl pdAl
Al

With the free surface at atmospheric pressure, the vertical

component of the resultant hydrostatic force on a curved
submerged surface is equal to the total weight of the liquid
directly above the surface.

FRZ FV pdAZ

p gh

FV ghdAZ gdV gV

Basic equation in integral form

for a control volume
4-1 Basic laws for a system

4-1.1 Conservation of mass

dM
system 0
dt

(4.1a )

M system dm
M system

M system

dV

(4.1b)

4-1.2 Newtons second law ( Conservation of momentum )

dP

F
dt system

Psystem Vdm
M system

M system

(4.2a )

VdV

(4.2b)

4-1.3 The angular

Momentum principle

dH

T
dt system

H system r Vdm
r VdV
M system
H system

T r Fs
r gdm Tshaft

(4.3a )
(4.3b)
(4.3a )

M system

4-1.4 The first of thermodynamics

Q W dE
dE

Q W

dt

(4.4a )
system

Esystem edm
M system

V2
eu
gz
2

Vsystem

edV
(4.4c)

(4.4b)

4-1.5 The second Law of Thermodynamics

dS
dS

dt

Q
T

system

1
Q
T

(4.5a )

S system sdm
M system

Vsystem

sdV

(4.5b)

4-2 Relation of system derivatives to the control volume

formulation

N system

M
1


P
V

H
r V dv
V

system
E
e
S
s

The control volume is fixed in space relative to coordinate

system xyz,during t+dt-t time the system has been chosen so
that the mass within region I enters the control volume during
interval dt, and the mass in region III leaves the control volume
during the same interval.
( N cv N I N III ) t0 t N cv t0
dN
lim
dt system t 0
t

(4.8)

N cv ) t0 t N cv t0
dN
lim
lim
t 0
dt system t 0
t

N III ) t0 t
t

lim

t 0

N I ) t0 t
t

The surface of control volume include: surface of the flow enter

the control volume and the surface of the flow leaves the control
volume and he surface no flow pass it

dN dV (l cos dA)
l
lim
V
t 0 t

(4.9)

dN

dt
dN

dt

cs V dA cos
t s

dV V dA
cs
t CV

(4.11)

4-3 Conservation of mass:(N=m;

dN

dt

dM

dt

dV V dA
cs
t CV

dV V dA
cs
t CV

(4.11)
(4.12)

conservation

dV V dA 0

cs
t CV

(4.13)

4-3.1 special cases

incompressible, nondeformable control volume of fixed size
and shape

V dA 0

cs

The integral of V dA over a section of the control surface

is commonly called the volume flow rate or volume

rate of flow. For incompressible flow , the volume flow
rate into a fixed control volume must be equal to the volume
flow rate out of the control volume

AV dA Q
V dA 0
cs

A
(4.16)

At a section, uniform flow, density is constant

An

V dA nVn An


4-4 momentum equation for inertial control volume N P

dN

CV dV cs V dA
dt s t

dP

VdV VV dA
cs
dt s t CV

(4.11)
(4.17)

Newtons second law for a system moving relative to an inertial

coordinate system

dP

F FS FB
dt

The sum of all forces (surface and body) acting on a

nonaccelerating control volume is equal to the sum of the rate
of change of momentum inside the control volume and the net
rate of flux of momentum out through the control surface


We denote the body force per unit mass as B

FB Bdv
CV

FS

pdA

Fx FS x FBx udV uV dA
cs
t CV

Fy FS y FB y vdV vV dA
cs
t CV

Fz FS z FBz wdV wV dA
cs
t CV

4-4.1 Differential Control volume analysis

Application of the basic equations to a differential control volume
leads to differential equations describing the relationships among
properties in the flow field (property variations) For the case Steady,
incompressible, frictionless flow along a streamline, integration of
one such differential equation leads to a useful relationship among
speed, pressure, and elevation in a flow field,
The control volume is bounded by streamlines, flow across the
bounding surfaces occurs only at the end section,

p, ,Vs , A
a. Continuity equation

p dp, ,Vs dVs , A dA

Assumption: Steady,no flow across bounding streamlines,

incompressible flow

dV V dA 0
Basic equation:

cs
t CV

(4.13)

 | Vs A | | (Vs dVs )( A dA) | 0

Vs dA AdVs dAdVs 0
Vs dA AdVs 0
b. Streamwise component of the momentum equation
Assumption: No friction, pressure forces only
Basic equation:

FS s FBs

cs

VV dA u s V dA
cs

dp
FS s pA ( p dp )( A dA) ( p )dA
2

Where Fsb is the pressure force acting in the s direction on the

bounding stream surface of the control volume

dp
FS s dpA dA
2
FBs g s dV ( g sin )( A dA / 2)ds
where

dz sin ds

FBs g ( A dA / 2)dz
The momentum flux will be

CS

u s VdA Vs ( | Vs A |) (Vs dVs )( | (Vs dVs )( A dA) |)

Vs AdVs

Where :
continuity

| Vs A | | (Vs dVs )( A dA) | 0

1
1
Adp dpdA gAdz gdAdz Vs AdVs
2
2

dpdA and dAdz are negligible compared with the remaining term

Vs
dp
d ( ) gdz 0

(4 24)

For incompressible flow

p V2

gz C
2

(4.25)

For an infinitesimal stream tube control volume, steady,

incompressible flow without friction. We can get formation(4.25)
, the Bernoulli equation

4-4.2 Control volume moving with constant velocity

The previous equation based on the stationary control volume. A
control volume (fixed relative to reference frame xyz) moving
with constant velocity reference frame XYZ, is also inertial , since
it has no acceleration with respect to XYZ

dN

dt

dV Vxyz dA
cs
t CV

(4.26)

F FB FS Vxyz dV Vxyz Vxyz dA

cs
t CV

(4.27)

4-5 Momentum equation for control volume with rectilinear

acceleration
For an inertial control volume (having no acceleration relative to a
stationary frame of reference xyz)

F FB FS Vxyz dV Vxyz Vxyz dA

(4.27)
cs
t CV


dP

F
dt system

Psystem Vdm
M system

Vsystem

(4.2a )

VdV

(4.2b)

If we denote the inertial reference frame by XYZ,for

accelerating control volume (4.27) is not right

dPXYZ
F
dt

d

dt M system VXYZ dm M system

dVXYZ
dm
dt

The velocity with respect to the inertial (XYZ) and the control
volume coordinate(xyz) are related by the relative-motion Eq.

VXYZ Vxyz Vrf

(4.30)

Where V is the velocity of the control volume reference frame.

dVxyz dVrf

dVXYZ
XYZ

xyz rf
(4.31)
dt
dt
dt

dPxyz

F
rf dm
)s
( 4.32)
M system
dt
Linear momentum of the system, to derive the control volume
formulation of Newtons second law

dP

dt

CV

VdV VV dA
cs

( 4.17)

F rf dV FB FS rf dV
CV

CV

Vxyz dV Vxyz Vxyz dA

cs
t CV

(4.34)

FS x FBx wxyz Vxyz dA udV uV dA
CS
cs
t CV

FS y FB y v xyz Vxyz dA vdV vV dA
CS
cs
t CV

FS z FBz u xyz Vxyz dA wdV wV dA
CS
cs
t CV

(4.35)

4-8 The first law of thermodynamics

dE

Q W

dt

(4.4a )
system

Esystem edm
M system

V2
eu
gz
2

N system

Vsystem

edV

(4.4b)

(4.4c)

M
1


P
V

H
r V dv
V

system
E
e
S
s

dE

dt

edV eV dA
cs
t CV

(4.54)

Since the system and the control volume coincide at t0

[Q W ]system [Q W ]controlvolume

Q W edV eV dA
cs
t CV

(4.55)

4-8.1 rate of work done by a control volume

W W s W normal W shear W other

1:Shaft work

2. Normal stresses at the control surface

w
F ds

W lim
lim
F V
t 0 t
t 0
dt

W normal

nnV dA
cs

3. shear stresses at the control surface

dF dA
W shear

VdA
cs

Can be expressed as three terms(shaft; solid ports surface)

4 other work

W W s

cs

nnV dA W shear W other

(4.56)

4-8.2 control volume equation

Q W s W shear W other

edV eV dA nnVdA
cs
cs
t CV

nn p
Q W s W shear W other

V2
edV (u pv
gz ) V dA
CV
cs
t
2

4-9 the second law of thermodyhamics

dS

dt

system

S system sdm
M system

1
Q
T

M system

sdV

(4.5a )

(4.5b)


N system

dS

dt

t CV

M
1


P
V

H
r V dv
V

system
E
e
S
s

sdV sV dA
cs

1 Q
sdV sV dA dA

cs
cs T
t CV
A

(4.58)

(4.59)

Introduction to differential
analysis of fluid motion
The chapter 4 describe the basic equation in integral
form for control volume. This chapter present the
differential equations in terms of infinitesimal systems
and control volume

5-1 Conservation of mass

5-1.1 rectangular coordinate system
the control volume chosen is an infinitesimal cube with sides of
length dx,dy,dz as shown in Fig5.1. The parameter of flow,
density,velocity,pressure etc. is defined at center O point

V iu jv kw
To evaluate the properties at each of the six faces of the control
surface, we use a Taylor series expansion about point O, at right
If we define:

x dx / 2

x 2 1 dx 2

2 ( )
x 2 x 2! 2

Neglecting higher order term

x dx / 2

x
x 2

At the left face

u x dx / 2 u

x dx / 2

x

x 2

u x
x 2

Statement of conservation of mass is

u x dx / 2

u x
u
x 2

Net rate of mass flux out Rate of change of mass

through the control surface inside the control volume 0

The first term in Eq. We must consider the mass

through each
flux
of the six surfaces of the control surface: cs V dA
The net rate of mass flux out through the control surface is given
by
u v w
x y z dxdydz

The mass inside the control volume at any instant is the product
of the mass per unit volume and the volume, dxdydz. The rate of

Change of mass inside the control volume is given by

dxdydz
t
u v w

0
x
y
z
t

(5.1a )

i
j k
x
y
z

V
0
t

(5.1b)

5-1.2 Cylindrical Coordinate System

A suitable differential control volume for cylindrical
coordinate is in Fig.5.2, also define desity, velocity, at the
control volume center O


V erVr e V kVz

cs

V dA

The mass flux through each of the six faces of control surface,
from the Taylor series expansion about point O.
The net rate of mass flux out through the control surface is given
by
Vr V
Vz

Vr r r r z drddz

The mass inside the control volume at any instant is the

product of the mass per unit volume and the volume rddrdz
The rate of change of mass inside the control volume is given
by

rddrdz

1 (rVr ) 1 V Vz

0
r r
r
z
t

er

(5.2)

e
k
r
r
z

V
0
t
5-2 Stream function for 2-D incompressible flow
Relation between the streamlines and the statement of
conservation of mass, for 2-D incompressible flow in the xy
plane
u v

0
x y

If a continuous function , ( x, y, t ) , called the stream function, is

defined such that

and

(5.4)

The streamline ,at given instant, it tangent to the direction of

flow at every point in the flow field,

V dr 0 (iu jv) (idx jdy )
k(udy vdx)

udy vdx
dx
dy d 0
x
y
Where the time is defined at t0, the volume flow rate, Q, between
streamlines
and
can be evaluated by consider the flow
across AB or across BC. For a unit depth, the flow rate across AB
Is:

y2

y2

y1

y1

Q udy

dy
y

d
dy
y
y2

Q d 2 1
y1

Along BC, d / xdx

it is same as the side AB

For a 2-D, imcompressible flow in the cylindrical coordinate,

conservation of mass,
(rVr ) V

0
r

streamfunc tion
1

Vr
V
r
r

5-3 Motion of a fluid element(kinematics)

5-3.1Fluid translation:Acceleration of a fluid particle in a velocity

field

V p |t V p ( x, y, z , t )
and a p

Vp
V p ( x dx, y dy, z dz , t dt )
t t

V
V
V
V
dV p
dx p
dy p
dz p
dt
x
y
z
t

V
V
V
V
ap
dx p / dt
dy p / dt
dz p / dt
x
y
z
t

V
V
V V
u
v
w

x
y
z t

DV
V
V
V V
ap u
v
w

Dt
x
y
z t

It include: total acceleration of a particle, convective acceleration,

and local acceleration

V
V
V
(V )V u
v
w
x
y
z

V
DV
a p (V )V
Dt
t

(5.10)

5-3.2 Fluid Rotation

A fluid particle moving may rotate about the axes,

i x j y k z

The oa and ob rotate to the position shown during the interval dt

v
va vo x
x


/ x
oa lim
lim
t 0 t
t 0
t
v
xt
x
v
oa
x
Similar, the angular velocity of line ob
u
ob
y
The rotation of the fluid element about z axis is the average
angular velocity of the two mutually perpendicular line
elements
1 v u
z

)
2 x y
1 w v
x (
)
2 y z
1 u w
y (

)
2 z x


1
w v
u w
v u
[i(
) j (

) k(

)]
(5.13)
2
y z
z x
x y

1
V
(5.14)
2

to be twice the rotation

The vorticity
is defined as
2 V
(5.15)

In cylindrical coordinates the vorticity is

1 Vz V
Vr Vz
1 rV 1 Vr

V er (

) e (

) k(

)
r
z
z
r
r r
r

(5.16)

The circulation is defined as the line integral of the tangential

velocity component about a closed curve fixed in the flow

V ds
C

(5.17)

For closed curve oacb

ux (v

v
u
x)y (u y )x vy
x
x

v u
( )xy 2 z xy
x x

V ds 2 z dA ( V ) z dA
c

5-3.3 fluid Deformation

a. Angular deformation:The angular changes between two mutually
perpendicular line segments in the fluid. Fig.5.9 in the xy plane the
rate of decrease of angle between lines oa and ob

90 0 ( )

d
d d

dt
dt
dt
d
/ x
v / x ) xt / x
v
lim
lim (
)
t 0
t 0
dt
t
t
x
d
u

dt
y
d v u

The rate of angular deformation in the xy plane is dt x y

b. Linear deformation
The element change length in the x direction only if du/dx=0,
dv/dy, dw/dz, changes in the length of the sides may produce
changes in volume of the element.
Volume dilation rate =

u v w

V
x y z

For incompressible flow, the rate of volume dilation is zero

5-4 momentum equation

dP

F
dt system

Psystem Vdm
M system

dV

dF dm
dt

system

M system

(4.2a )

VdV

(4.2b)

DV
V
V
V
V
dm
dm(
u
v
w
)(5.22)
Dt
t
x
y
z

5-4.1 forces acting on a fluid particle

 xx dx
dx
)dydz ( xx xx )dydz
x 2
x 2
yx dy
yx dy
( yx
)dxdz ( yx
)dxdz
x 2
x 2
dz
dz
( zx zx )dxdy ( zx zx )dxdy
x 2
x 2
xx yx zx
(

)dxdydz
x
x
x

dFs x ( xx

 xx yx zx
dFx dFBx dFS x ( g x

)dxdydz
x
x
x
dFy dFB y dFS y ( g y

yy

xy

zy

)dxdydz

x
x
x
xz yz zz
dFz dFBz dFS z ( g z

)dxdydz
x
x
x
5-4.2 differential momentum equation

(5.23a )
(5.23b)
(5.23c)

xx yx zx
u
u
u
u
g x

( u
v w )
(5.24a )
x
x
x
t
x
y
z
xy yy zy
v
v
v
v
g y

( u v w )
(5.24b)
y
y
y
t
x
y
z
xz yz zz
w
w
w
w
g z

( u
v
w )
(5.24c)
y
y
y
t
x
y
z

5-4.3 Newtonian fluid :N-S equation

For a Newtonian fluid the viscous stress is proportional to the rate of shearing
strain(angular deformation rate). The stresses may be expressed in terms of
velocity gradients and fluid properties in rectangular coordinates as follow :

v u
xy yx ( )
x y
w v
yz zy ( )
y z
u w
zx xz ( )
z x

2
u
xx p V 2
3
x

2
v
yy p V 2
3
y

2
w
zz p V 2
3
z

(5.25a )
(5.25b)
(5.25c)
(5.25d )
(5.25e)
(5.25 f )

If the expression for the stresses are introduced into the differential
equations of motion(eqs 5.24) we obtain

Du
p
u 2

u v

g x [ ( 2 V )] [ ( )]
Dt
x x
x 3
y
y x

w u
[ ( )]
z
x z

Dv
p
v 2

u v

g y [ (2 V )] [ ( )]
Dt
y y
y 3
x
y x

v w
[ ( )]
z
z y

Dw
p
w 2

v w

g z [ (2
V )] [ ( )]
Dt
z z
z 3
y
z y

w u
[ ( )]
x
x z

Chapter 6 Incompressible
inviscid flow
Many flow cases is reasonable to
neglect the effect of viscosity , no
shear stresses are present in inviscid
flow, normal stress are considered as
the negative of the thermodynamic
pressure -p

6-1 momentum equation for frictionless flow: Eulers equations

p
u
u
u
u
g x ( u v w ) (6.1a )
x
t
x
y
z
p
v
v
v
v
g y
( u v w )
(6.1b)
y
t
x
y
z
p
w
w
w
w
g z
( u
v
w )
(6.1c)
y
t
x
y
z

V
V
V
V
g p (
u
v
w
)
t
x
y
z

V
g p (
(V )V )
(6.2)
t

DV
g p
(6.3)
Dt

p
Vr
Vr
Vr
Vr V
g r
(
Vr
V
Vz

)
(6.4a )
r
t
r

z
r
1 p
V
V
1 V
V VrV
g
(
Vr
V
Vz

)
(6.4b)
r
t
r
r
z
r
p
Vz
Vz
1 Vz
Vz
g z
(
Vr
V
Vz
)
(6.4c)
z
t
r
r
z
6-2 Eulers equation in streamline coordinates
The motion of a fluid particle in a steady flow, streamline
coordinates also may be used to describe unsteady flow streamline
in unsteady flow give a graphical representation of the
instantaneous velocity field.

p ds
p ds
(p
)dndx ( p
)dndx g sin dsdndx as dsdndx
s 2
s 2

p
g sin as
s

p
z

g as
s
s
as

DV V
V

V
Dt
t
s

p
z V
V

g
V
s
s t
s
p
V
V
s
s

(6.5a)
(6.5b)

p dn
p dn
(p
)dsdx ( p
)dsdx g cos dsdndx an dsdndx
n 2
n 2

p
g cos an
n
p
z

g
an
n
n

V2
an
R

p
z V 2

n
n R
p V 2

n R

(6.6a )
(6.6b)

6-3 Bernoulli equation-integration of Eulers equation along a

streamline for steady flow
For incompressible inviscid flow
6-3.1 Derivation using streamline coordinates
Along streamline:

1 p
z
V

g V
s
s
s
dp

gdz VdV

dp V 2
2 gz C

p V2

gz C
2

(6.8)
(6.9)

6-3.3 Static, Stagnation, and Dynamic Pressure

The static pressure is that pressure which would be measured by
an instrument moving with flow.

The stagnation pressure is obtained when a flowing fluid is

decelerated to zero speed by a frictionless process. Neglecting
elevation difference,

p V2

C
2

V 2
p0 p
2
The dynamic pressure

1
V 2
2

2( p0 p)

Q Q dm Q

m
dt dm dt dm
Incompressible v v 1 /
1
2

p1 V12
p2 V22
Q

gz1

gz 2 (u 2 u1
)

2
dm

(6.15)

6-5 unsteady Bernoulli equation-integration of Eulers equation

along a streamline

p
DV DV

gk
ds

Dt
Dt

(6.3)

DV DV
p
V
V

ds gk ds
ds
ds V
ds
ds

Dt
Dt
s
t

p ds dp (the change in pressure along

k ds dz (the change in z along s )
V
ds dV (the change in V
s
dp
V

gdz VdV
ds

along
(6.19)

s)

(6.18)

s)

2 V
dp V22 V12

g ( z 2 z1 )
ds 0
1

2
t

(6.20)

2 V
p1 V12
p2 V22

gz1

gz2
ds
1

2
t

(6.21)

Restrictions (1) incompressible

(2) Frictionless flow
(3) Flow along a streamline

6-6 irrotational flow

The fluid element moving in the flow field without any rotation

1
V 0
2
w v u w v u

0
(6.22)
y z z x x y
1 Vz V Vr Vz 1 rV 1 Vr

0
r
z
z
r r r
r
6-6.1 Bernoulli equation applied to irrotational flow
2

p1 V1

gz1 C

(6.23)

gk (V )V
(6.10)

(V )V (V V ) V ( V )
2
1
p
1

gk (V V ) (V 2 )

2
2
1

p
2

dr gk dr (V ) dr

2
dp
1

gdz dV 2

2
p V2

gz C
2

(6.24)

(6.25)

Since the dr was an arbitrary displacement Eq.6.25 is valid between

any two points in a steady, incompressible, inviscid flow that is also
irrotational.

6-6.2 Velocity potential

We formulated the stream function which relates the streamlines and
mass flow rate in 2-D , incompressible flow.
we can formulate a relation called the potential function for a
velocity field that is irrotational.
curl(grad ) = = 0

(6.26)

(6.27)

u
v
w
(6.28)
x
y
z

er
e
ez
(3.21)
r
r
z

Vr
V
Vz
(6.29)
r
r
z

The velocity potential exists only for irrotational flow. The stream
function satisfies the continuity equation for incompressible flow; the
stream function is not subject to the restiction of irrotational flow.
6-6.3 stream function and velosity potential for 2-D , irrotational ,
incompressible flow: Laplaces equation

u
v
(5.4)
y
x

u
v
(6.28) v u 0
(6.22)
x
y
x y
Irrotational flow

2 2
2 0
2
x
y
continuity
equation
u v

0
x y
2 2
2 0
2
x
y

(6.30

(5.3)

(6.31)

Along streamline c
d 0

d
dx
dy 0
x
y
dy

dx

/ x
v v

/ y
u
u

(6.32)

Along a line of constant , d = 0

d

dx
dy 0
x
y

dy

dx

/ x
u

/ y
v

(6.33)

We see that the slope of a constant streamline at any point is the

negative reciprocal of the slope of constant velocity potential line
at that point; lines of constant stream and constant velocity
potential are orthogonal

6-6.4 Elementary Plane Flow

A variety of potential flows can be constructed by superposing
elementary flow patterns, five elementary 2-D flows-----a uniform
flow, a source, a sink, a vortex, and a doublet----are summaried in
Tablet 6.1

6-6.5 superposition of elementary plane flows

Both stream function and velocity potential satisfy Laplaces
equationfor flow that is both incompressible and irrotational . Sincer
Laplaces equation is a linear, homogeneous partial differential
equation , solution may be superposed to develop more complex and
interesting patterns of flow

Chapter 7 Dimensional Analysis

And Similitude
The real physical flow situation is approximated with
a mathematical model that is simple enough to yield a
solution, then experimental measurements are made
to check the analytical results. Experimental
measurement is very time-consuming and expensive.
When experimental testing of a full-size prototype is
either impossible or prohibitively expensive. The
model flow and the prototype flow must be related by
known scaling laws.

7-1 Nature of dimensional analysis

The physical parameters can write the symbolic equation:
F f ( D, V , , )
We need do many experiments for determining the
parameter (diameter, velocity,density,fluid viscosity),
through the use of dimensional analysis, we can get very
useful formulation ( example 7.1)

F
VD
f1 (
)
2
V D

The Buckingham Pi Theorem is a statement of the

relation between a function expressed in terms of
dimensional parameters and a related function expressed
in terms of nondimensional parameter

7-2 Buckingham Pi Theorem

The dependent parameter is a function of n-1 independent
parameters, we may express the relationship among the
variables in functional form as

q1 f (q1 , q2 ,..., qn )
g (q1 , q2 , q2 ,..., qn ) 0
F f ( D, V , , )
g ( F , D, V , , ) 0

The n parameters may be grouped into n-m independent

dimensionless ratios, or II parameters, expressible
functional form by

G (1 , 2 ,...., n m ) 0
or
1 G1 ( 2 , 3 ,...., n m )

The number m is usually equal to the minimum number of

independent dimensions required to specify the dimensions
of all the parameters
21
13 / 4
5
or 6 2
2 3
3

7-3 Determining the II groups

The six steps listed below outline a recommended
procedure for determining the II parameters
Step1. List all the dimensional parameters involved
Step 2. Selected a set of fundamental dimensions MLt ..
Step 3. List the dimensions of all parameters in terms of
primary dimensions
Step 4. Select a set of r dimensional parameters that
include all the primary dimensions
Step 5. Set up dimensional equations, combining the
parameters selected in step 4 with each of the

Other parameters in turn , to form dimensionless

group
Step 6. Check to see that each group obtained is
dimensionless

7-4 Significant Dimensionless groups in fluid mechanics

In flow field, we use physical force such as interia,
viscous, pressure, gravity, surface tension, and
compressibility
Viscous force
Pressure force
Gravity force

du
V 2
A
A L VL
dy
L
(p ) A (p ) L2
mg gL3

Surface tension force

V D V D

VL VL
Re

Re

Re No.

Pressure coefficient:

Cp

1
V 2
2

Cavitation phenomena, the pressure express as cavitation

number:
p pv

1
V 2
2
Froude number was significant for flows with free
surface effects which may be interpreted as the ratio of
inertia force to gravity forces.

V
Fr
gL

V 2 V 2 L
Fr

gL gL3
2

The Weber number is the ratio of inertia forces to surface

tension forces
V 2 L
We

Compressibility effects M V V V
c
dp
Ev
d

2 2

V
L
2
M
Ev L2

As a ratio of inertia forces to forces due to

compressibility
7-5 Flow similarity and model studies
Geometric similarity..model and prototype have same
shape and both flow are kinematically similar

Kinematically similar: velocities at corresponding points

are in the same direction and are related in magnitude by a
constant scale factor, the streamline patterns related by a
constant scale factor
Kinematic similarity requires that the regimes of flow be
the same for model and prototype.

VD

mod el

VD

Re mod el Re prototype
prototype

Then the dependent parameter is duplicated between model

and prototype

2 2
V D

mod el

2 2
V D

prototype

And the result determined from the model study can be

used to predict the drag on the full-scale prototype. As
long as the Reynolds numbers are matched. The actual
force on the object due to the fluid have the value of its
dimensionless group.

Effects are absent from the model test.

F
VD
Re mod el Re prototype

f
(
)
1
2 2
V D

The prototype condition Vp = 8.44 ft/s

Re p

Vp Dp

Re m

Dynamically similar
Vm Re m

2 2
V D

4.99 105
Vm Dm
4.99 105
m

m
157 ft / s
Dm

mod el

2 2
V D

prototype

p V p2 D p2
Fp Fm
53.9lbf
2
2
m Vm Dm

7-6 Nondimensionalizing the basic differential equation

Use the Buckingham Pi theorem , a more rigorous and
broader approach to determine the conditions under which
two flows are similar is to use the governing differential
equations and boundary conditions. Two physical
phenomena are governed by differential equations and
boundary conditions that have the same dimensionless
forms. Dynamic similarity is guaranteed by duplicating the
dimensionless coefficients of the equations and boundary
conditions between prototype and model.
Nondimensionalizing the basic differential equation, steady
incompressible 2-D flow in the xy plane

u v

0
x y

(7.7)

2u 2u
u
u
p
u v
2
2
y
x
y
x
x

(7.8)

2v 2v
v
v
p
u v g
2
2
y
y
y
x
x

(7.9)

The pressure nondimensional by dividing by V2

x
x
L
*

y
y
L
*

u
u
V
*

v
v
V
*

p
p
V2
*

V u * V v*

0
*
*
L x
L y

(7.11)

V2 * u * * u *
V2 p *
V 2u * 2u *
u

v
2

(7.12)
2
2
*
*
*
*
*

L
x
y
L x
L x
y
V2 * v* * v*
V2 p *
V 2 v* 2 v*
u
g
v
2

(7.13)
2
2
*
*
*
*
*

L
x
y
L y
L x
y
u * v*
* 0
*
x y

(7.14)

*
u *
p *
2u * 2u *
* u
u
*
v

(7.15)
2
2
*
*
*
*

x
y
x
V L x
y

*
v*
gL p *
2 v* 2 v*
* v
u
2 *
v

(7.16)
2
2
*
*
*
*

x
y
V y
V L x
y

The differential equations for two flow system will be

2
identical if the quantities / V L and gL / V
Are the same for both flows. Thus , model studies to
determine the drag force on a surface ship require
duplication of both the Froude number and the Reynolds
number to ensure dynamically similar flows.
Emphasize that in addition to identical nondimensional
equation, the nondimensional boundary conditions also
must be identical if the two flow are to be kinematically
similar . The periodic flow define the velocity on the
boundary:

ubc V sin t

Nondimensionalize time:

t* t

V
L

L
u
*
ubc bc sin
t *
V
V

Duplication of the boundary condition requires that

parameter L / V be the same between the two flows.
This parameter is the Strouhal number
St

L
V

Chapter 8 Internal
incompressible viscous flow
Flow completely bounded by solid surfaces are called
internal flows: pipes, nozzles, diffusers, sudden
contractions and expansions, valves, and fittings.
Laminar and turbulent flow, some laminar flow may
be solved analytically, the case of turbulent flow we
must rely heavily on semi-empirical theories and on
experimental data. The flow regime is primarily a
function of the Reynolds number.

8-1 introduction
The pipe flow regime(laminar or turbulent) is determined
by the Reynolds number,
the qualitative For
laminar flow, the entrance length,L, is the function of
Reynolds number,
L
V D
0.06
D

Part A Fully Developed Laminar Flow

8-2 Fully developed laminar flow between infinite parallel
plates
8-2.1 Both plates stationary
Boundary at y=0 u=0; y=a u=0. u=u(y)(v=w=0)
For analysis we select a differential control volume of size
dV=dxdydz and apply the x component of the momentum
equation

Assumption (1) steady flow (2) fully developed flow

(3) FBx = 0
Basic equation

FS x

cs

uV dA

(4.19a )

For fully developed flow, the net momentum flux through

the control surface is zero. FSx = 0
The next step is to sum the forces acting on the control
volume in the x direction. We recognize that the normal
forces(pressure forces) act on the left and right aces and
tangential forces(shear forces) act on the top and bottom
faces faces.

dFL
dFR
dFB
dFT

p dx
(p
)dydz
x 2
p dx
( p
)dydz
x 2
d yx dy
( yx
)dxdz
dy 2
d yx dy
( yx
)dxdz
dy 2

p d yx

0
(8.3)
x dy
d yx p
p

C yx
y c1
dy
x
x
du
du p
yx

y c1
dy
dy x
1 p 2 c1
u

y c2
2 x

According to boundary condition

a 2 p
u
( )
2 x

y
y

a
a

(8.4)

(8.5)

Shear stress distribution

yx

p y 1
a( )
x a 2

Volume flow rate

(8.6a )

a 1 p 2
Q V dA

( y ay )dy
A
0 2 x

Q
1 p 3

(8.6b)

a
l
12 x

Flow rate as function of pressure drop

p p2 p1 p

x
L
L
Q a 3 p

(8.6c)
L 12 L

Average velocity
Q
1 p a 3l
1 p 2
V

a
A
12 x la
12 x

(8.6d )

Point of maximum velocity

du a 2 p 2 y 1

( )

dy 2 x a a
du
1 p 2 3
0 y a / 2 umax
( )a V
dy
8 x
2
Transformation of Coordinates
Transform from y=0 at bottom to y=0 at centerline

(8.6e)

a p y
1
u
( )

2 x a
4
2

(8.7)

8-2.2 Upper plate moving with constant speed, U

The boundary condition
u=0

at y=0;

u=U at y=a

(8-4) is equally valid for the moving plate case , velocity

distribution is given by

1 p 2 c1
u

y c2
2 x

From BC. We have

(8.4)

y0

u 0 c2 0

ya

u U

1 p 2 c1
U 1 p
U

a a c1
a
2 x

a 2 x
Uy a 2 p y 2
y
u

(8.8)

( ) ( )
a 2 x a
a
Shear stress distribution

yx

U
p
a( )
a
x

y 1

a 2

(8.9a)

Volume flow rate Q V dA a uldy

a Uy
Q
1 p 2
[

( y ay )dy
0
l
a 2 x
Q Ua
1 p 3

(8.9b)

a
l
2 12 x

Average Velocity
Q
Ua
1 p a 3l
U
1 p
V l[

] / la

a (8.9c)
A
2 12 x la
2 12 x
Point of Maximum velocity
du U a 2 p 2 y 1

( ) 2
dy a 2 x a a

du
a
U /a
0 y
dy
2 (1 / )(p / x)

8-3 Fully developed laminar flow in a pipe

For a fully developed steady flow, the x component of
momentum equation applied to the differential control
volume, reduce to

FS x 0

On the control volume in the x direction. Normal forces

(pressure surface) acting on the left and right ends of the
control volume, and that tangential forces(shear forces) act
on the inner and outer cylindrical surfaces as well
Pressure force on
dFL p 2rdr
the left
Pressure force on
the right
Shear force on the
inner cylindrical
On the outer
cylindrical

p
dFR ( p dx)2rdr
x
dFl rx 2rdx

d rx
dFO ( rx
dr )2 (r dr )dx
dr

p rx d rx 1 d (r rx )

(8.10)
x
r
dr
r dr
1 d rx p
r 2 p

C r rx
c1
r dr
x
2 x
du
du r p c1
rx

dr
dr 2 x
r
r 2 p c1
u

ln r c2
4 x

(8.11)

Boundary condition u=0 r=R, and the physical

considerations that the velocity must be finite at r=0, the
only way that this can be true is for c1 to be zero

r 2 p
R 2 p
u

c2 c2

4 x
4 x

velocity

2
R 2 p
r

u

1
4 x
R

(8.12)

r p
yx ( )
(8.13a)
Shear stress distribution
2 x
R 1 p 2
2
Q

d
A

(
r

R
)2rdr

Volume flow
A
0 4 x
rate
R 4 p
Q
(8.13b)

8 x
Flow rate as a
function pf
pressure drop

p p2 p1 p

x
L
L
pD 4
Q
(8.13c)
128L

The average velocity

Q
R 2 p
V 2

R
8 x
The maximum velocity is on the point

(8.13d )

du
r p

( )
dr 2 x
du
R 2 p 2
0 r 0 umax U
( )a 2V
dr
4 x

(8.13e)

The velocity profile(8.12) can be written in terms of the

maximum velocity as
u
r
1 ( )2
U
R

(8.14)

Part B Flow in Pipes and Ducts

This section is to evaluate the pressure changes from the
flow velocity and from friction.
To develop relations for major losses due to friction in
constant-area ducts,

8-4 Shear stress distribution in fully developed pipe flow

In fully developed steady flow in a horizontal pipe, be it
laminar or turbulent, the pressure drop is balanced only by
shear forces at the pipe wall.
Assumption: Horizontal pipe,

FBx 0

Steady flow, incompressible flow, Fully developed flow

The x component of the momentum equation:

Fx FS x FBx udV uV dA
cs
t CV

The shear stress on the fluid varies linearly across the

pipe, from zero at the centerline to a maximum at the pipe
wall, at the surface of the pipe

w [ rx ]r R

R p

2 x

(8.16)

To relate the shear stress field to the mean velocity field,

we could determine analytically the pressure drop over a
length of pipe for fully developed flow for laminar flow.
In turbulent flow, no simple relation exists between the
shear stress field and the mean velocity field. For fully
developed turbulent pipe flow, the total shear stress is:

lam turb

du

u v
dy

(8.17)

The profile fits the data close to the centerline, it fails to

give zero slope there. It give adequate results in many
calculation.
For Re>2x104 : n=-1.7+1.8logReU
V Q/ A

and

Q V dA
A

(8.23)

The ratio of the average velocity to the centerline velocity

V
2n 2

U (n 1)(2n 1)

(8.24)

8-6 Energy considerations in pipe flow

By applying the momentum equation for a control volume
with the formulation of conservation of mass, we have
derived all the results. About conservation of energy-the
first law of the thermodynamics, we can get insight into
the nature of the pressure losses in internal viscous flows
can be obtained from energy equation

Q W s W shear W other edV (e pv) V dA(4.57)

cs
t CV
V2
eu
gz
2

5-6.1 kinetic Energy Coefficient

Use as the Kinetic energy coefficient

V2

V dA

V2

V dA

2
m V 2

V2
2

V dA m

(8.26b)

For laminar flow in a pipe, = 2.0

V2
2

(8.26a)

In turbulent pipe flow, the velocity profile is quite

flat(fig.8.11), substitute the power-law velocity profile
into(8.26b)
3
2n 2
U

(8.27)
V (3 n)(3 2n)
8-6.2 head loss
Using the definition of , the energy equation can be
written

2
2
p
p

V
Q m (u2 u1 ) m ( 2 1 ) m g ( z 2 z1 ) m ( 2 2 1 1 )

2
2

p1 1V1 2
p2 2V22
Q
(
gz1 ) (
gz2 ) (u2 u1 )
(8.28)

2
dm

V
p
(
gz )

2
Q
(u 2 u1 )
dm

The mechanical energy per unit mass at a

cross section

The difference in mechanical energy per

unit mass between section(1) and (2), it
represents the conversion of mechanical
energy at section (1) to unwanted
thermal energy(u2-u1)and the loss of
energy via heat transfer. We identify this
group of terms as the total energy loss
per unit mass and
designate it by the 2 hl
2
p1 1V1
p2 2V2
symbol
(
gz1 ) (
gz 2 ) hl (8.29)

For incompressible, frictionless flow, there is no

conversion of mechanical energy ( p V gz ) to

2
internal energy
2

For viscous flow in a pipe, one effect of friction may be to

increase the internal energy of the flow Eq.(8.28)
As the empirical science of hydraulics developed, it was
common practice to express the energy balance in terms of
energy per unit weight of flowing liquid rather than energy
per unit mass

hl
p1 1V1 2
p2 2V22
(
z1 ) (
z2 )
H l (8.30)
g 2 g
g
2g
g
Equation(8.29) and (8.30) can be used to calculate the
pressure difference between any two points in a piping
system, provided the head loss. hl (or H l )

8-7 Calculation of head loss

hl total head loss is regarded as the sum of major loss, hl

, due to frictional effects in fully developed flow in
constant-area tubes, and minor losses hlm due to
entrances , fittings, area changes, and so on
8-7.1 Major losses: friction factor

V 2
C
For fully developed flow hl = 0 and
2
m

Eq.(8.29) becomes

p1 p2
g ( z 2 z1 ) hl (8.31)

If the pipe is horizontal

p1 p2 p

hl (8.32)

Since head loss represents the energy converted by

frictional effects from mechanical to thermal energy , head
loss for fully developed flow in a constant-area duct
depends only on the details of the flow through the duct.
Head loss is independent of pipe orientation.
a. Laminar flow

pD 4
Q
128L

(8.13c)

128QL 128LV (D 2 / 4)
L V
p

32
4
4
D
D
D D
L V 64 L V 2
hl 32

(8.33)

D D Re D 2

b. Turbulent flow
The pressure drop can not be evaluate, we get it from the
experimental results and use dimensional analysis. The
pressure drop in fully developed turbulent flow due to
friction is depended on pipe diameter, D, pipe length, L,
pipe roughness, e, average flow velocity, V, fluid density,
and fluid viscosity

p1 p2 p

hl (8.32)

hl
L e
(Re, , )
2
V
D D

V2 L
Hl
f
(8.35)
2g D
The friction factor is determined experimentally(Fig 8.13)
To determine head loss for fully developed flow with known
conditions, the Reynolds number is evaluated first,
Roughness, e, is obtained from Table8.1 the friction factor f
is read from the appropriate curve in Fig8.13,at the known
values of Re and e/D.
For laminar flow, the friction factor from (8.33) and (8.34)
2
LV2
64 L V
hl
f

D 2
Re D 2
64
f la min ar
(8.36)
Re

e/D>0.001 Re>Re(transition), the friction factor is greater

than the smooth pipe value.
In general, the Re number is increased, the friction factor
decreases as long as the flow remain laminar. At transition
f increases sharply. In the turbulent flow regime, the
friction factor decreases gradually and finally levels out at
a constant value for large Reynolds number .

The Colebrook formula for friction factor

1

e/ D
2.51

)
0.5
0.5
f
3.7 Re f
e / D 5.74 2
f 0 0.25[log(
0.9 )]
3.7 Re
2.0 log(

(8.37 a )
(8.37b)

For turbulent flow in smooth pipes, the Blasius correlation

0.316
f 0.25
Re

(8.38)

The wall shear stress is obtained as

0.25
w 0.0332 V (
)
RV
2

(8.39)

8-7.2 Minor losses(K:loss coefficient from experiments)

V2
Le V 2
hlm K
(8.40a ) hlm f
(8.40b)
2
D 2

Where Le is an equivalent length of straight pipe.

a. Inlets and Exits

b.Enlargements and Contraction

Fig 8.15 gives the results for sudden expansion and
constraction

Losses in diffusers depend on a number of geometric and

flow variables. Diffuser data are in terms of a pressure
recovery coefficient defined as the static pressure rise to
inlet dynamic pressure
p2 p1
Cp
(8.41)
1
V1 2
2
If the gravity is neglected and 1 2 1

p1 V1 2
p2 V22
( ) ( ) hl hlm

A1V1 A2V2
V1 2
hlm
2

A1 2
(1 ( ) C p
A2

V1 2
hlm
2

1
(1 ( AR) 2 C p

For frictionless flow

(8.42)

hlm 0

1
Cpi 1
2
AR

(8.43)

Applying the Bernolli equation with the mass conservation

for frictionless flow through the diffuser, the head loss for
flow through an actual diffuser maybe written
V1 2
hlm (C pi C p )
(8.44)
2

c.pipe Bends

d. Valves and Fittings

Table 8.4(p367)

8-7.3 Noncircular Ducts

If the square or rectangular cross section may be treated if
the ratio of height to width is less than about 3 or 4. The
correlation for turbulent pipe flow are extended for use with
noncircular geometries by introducing the hydraulic
diameter, defined as

4A
Dh
P

(8.45)

A is cross-sectional area, and P is wetted perimeter.

For a rectangular duct of width b and height h, A=bh and
P=2(b+h), and the aspect ratio ar=h/b, then

2h
Dh
1 ar

8-8 solution of pipe flow problem

From the total head loss, pipe flow problem can be solved
using the energy equation Eq.8.29 . Consider single-path
pipe flow problem.
8-8.1 single-path system
The pressure drop through a pipe system is a function of
flow rate,elevation change,and total head loss.(1. Major
losses due to friction in constant-area section(Eq.8.34) and
minor losses due to fittingd,area changes, and so forth
(Eq.8.40). The pressure drop
p 3 ( L, Q, D, e, z , system configuration , , )
For the fixed pipe flow(incompressible,roughness,elevation
change)
p ( L , Q , D )
(8.46)
4

(a) L,Q,and D known, p unknown

friction factor from fig8.13, the total head loss is
computed from Eqs.8.34 and 8.40, Eq.29 used to
calculate the p (Example 8.5)
(b) p,Q, and D known, L unknown
Eq8.29 for head loss. Friction factor calculate from Re and
e/D, Eq.8.34 for unknown length(Example8.6)
p , L,and D known, Q unknown
(8.29) and lead loss; the result is an expression for average
V(or Q) in terms of the friction factor f (see P369)
(d) p, L,and Q known, D unknown
the problem is to determine the smallest pipe size that can
deliver the desired flow rate. Since the pipe diameter is

unknown, neither the Reynolds number nor relative

roughness can be computed directly, and an iterative
solution is required. Example8.8

p
V
Q W s edV (u
gz ) V dA
CV
cs
t
2
p2
p1

Win Ws (u2 )m (u1 )(m ) Q

p2 p1
p2 p1

Win
m (u2 u1 )m Q
m losses

The losses are determined in terms of the pump efficiency

losses (1 )W in

1 p2 p1
1
V Ap

Win
m ( p2 p1 )V A

W 36800hp
in

8-8.2 Pumps in fluid systems

The driving force causing the fluid motion was explicitly
stated as either a pressure difference or as an elevation
difference. The energy per unit mass added by the pump is
calculated
p V

p V

W pump m gz
gz

disch arg e 2
suction
2
W pump p V

p V

h pump
gz
gz
m
2
disch arg e 2

(8.47)
suction

 p1
p2

V1 2
V22

1
gz1
2
gz 2 h pump hlT
2
2

Part C Flow measurement

8-9 direct methods
For determine flow rate (volume or mass of liquid
collected)
8-10 Restriction flow meters for internal flows

(8.48)

Restriction flow meter are based on acceleration of a fluid

stream through some form of nozzle. Flow separation at the
sharp edge of the nozzle throat causes a recirculation zone
to form , as shown by the dashed line lines downstream
from the nozzle. The mainstream flow continues to
acceleration from the nozzle throat to form a vena contracta
at section (2) and then decelerates again to fill the duct. At
the vena contracta, the flow area is minimum, the flow
streamlines are essentially straight, and the pressure is
uniform across the channel section
Assumption: steady, incompressible, flow along a
streamline, no friction, uniform velocity at section,pressure
is uniform across sections and z1=z2

dV V dA 0

cs
t CV

(4.13)

p1 V1
p2 V2

gz1

gz 2

(6.9)

V1
2
V2
2

1
p1 p2 (V2 V1 )
2
2
V2

0 V1 A1 V2 A2
2

V1

V2

A2

A1

A2
V

1
p1 p2
2
A1

2
2

V2

2 p1 p2
[1 ( A2 / A1 ) 2 ]

(8.49)

The theoretical mass flow rate is then given by

m theoretical V2 A2

A2
1 ( A2 / A1 ) 2

2 ( p1 p2 ) (8.50)

The above formulation is adjusted for Reynolds number and

diameter ratio by defining an empirical discharge coefficient
such that

m actual

CAt
1 ( At / A1 )

2 (p 1 p 2 ) (8.51)

Dt / D1 4 ( At / A1 ) 2
CAt
m actual
2 (p 1 p 2 ) (8.52)
1 4

The velocity-of-approach factor and The discharge

coefficient are combined into a single flow coefficient

(8.53)

1 4

m actual KAt 2 ( p1 p2 )

(8.54)

For the turbulent flow regime, the discharge coefficient

b
C C n
(8.55)
Re D
1

The corresponding form for the flow-coefficient

equation is
K K

b
n
1 4 Re D1

(8.56)

8-10.1 The Orifice Plate

The thin plate , the pressure gaps for orifices may be
placed in several locations, the location of the pressure
taps influences the empirically determined flow coefficient,
you need select handbook values of C or K consistent with
the location of pressure gaps

2.5
91
.
71

C 0.5959 0.0312 2.1 0.184 8

Re 0D.175

0.2 0.75 10 4 Re D1 10 7

(8.57)

8-10.2 The flow Nozzle

6.53 0.5
C 0.9975
Re 0D.15

(8.53)

0.25 0.75 10 4 Re D1 10 7

a. Pipe installation (K is function of and Re D )

1

b. Plenum installation 0.95<K<0.99

8-10.3 The Venturi

Venturi meters are heavy,bulky,and expensive. The conical
diffuser section downstream from the throat gives excellent
pressure recovery; overall head loss is low. The discharge
coefficients for venturi meters range from 0.980 to 0.995 at
Re >2x10e+5. C=0.99