Slide 1

Chapter 2
The Physical Layer
Slide 2
The Theoretical Basis for Data
Communication

• Fourier Analysis
• Bandwidth-Limited Signals
• Maximum Data Rate of a Channel
Slide 3
Bandwidth-Limited Signals

1/T

1/T 1/2T

A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier amplitudes.

(b) – (c) Successive approximations to the original signal.
Slide 4
Bandwidth-Limited Signals (2)
1/T 1/2T
1/3T 1/4T

(d) – (e) Successive approximations to the original signal.

Slide 5
Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)
If there is a limitation
Time it takes to to 3000 Hz
transmit 8 bit telephone voice grade line
(see slide 3) 1/T 1/T, 1/2T, … 1/NT < 3000

Relation between data rate and harmonics.

Slide 6
Guided Transmission Data

• Magnetic Media
• Twisted Pair
• Coaxial Cable
• Fiber Optics
Slide 7
Twisted Pair

(a) Category 3 UTP.

(b) Category 5 UTP.
Slide 8
Coaxial Cable
Radio-grade flexible coaxial cable.
A: outer plastic sheath
B: copper screen
C: inner dielectric insulator
D: copper core

A coaxial cable.
Slide 9
Fiber Optics

(a) Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica fiber impinging
on the air/silica boundary at different angles.
(b) Light trapped by total internal reflection.
 Transmission of Light through Fiber
Slide 10

Attenuation of light through fiber in the infrared region.

Slide 11
Fiber Cables

(a) Side view of a single fiber.

(b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.
 Monday Sept 28th, 2009
Slide 12
Fiber Cables (2)

A comparison of semiconductor diodes and LEDs as light sources.

Slide 13
Fiber Optic Networks

A fiber optic ring with active repeaters.

Slide 14
Fiber Optic Networks (2)

A passive star connection in a fiber optics network.

Slide 15
Wireless Transmission
Thursday Oct 1st, 2009 and Oct 5th, 2009

• The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Infrared and Millimeter Waves
• Lightwave Transmission
Slide 16
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

WIFI

LF Low Frequency
MF Medium Frequency
HF High Frequency
VHF Very High Frequency
UHF Ultra High Frequency
SHF Super High Frequency
EHF Extremely High F.
THF Tremendously High F.

The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication.

Slide 17
Radio Transmission

(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the
curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
 Politics of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Slide 18

Unlicensed bands for short range use

Spread spectrum modulation often required
I : Industrial, S : Scientific, M: Medical

The ISM bands in the United States.

Slide 19
Lightwave Transmission

Convection currents can interfere with laser communication systems.

A bidirectional system with two lasers is pictured here.
Slide 20
Communication Satellites

• Geostationary Satellites
• Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
• Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
• Satellites versus Fiber
Slide 21
Communication Satellites

Geostationary

Area with highly charged particles

would destroy satellites

Medium-Earth Orbit

Low-Earth Orbit

Communication satellites and some of their properties,

including altitude above the earth, round-trip delay time
and number of satellites needed for global coverage.
Slide 22
Communication Satellites
First telecom satellite :Telstar July 10, 1962

15 hours for the satellite to get in view.

8 km/s, 4,800 km above the earth
Signal amplified it 10 billion times

Antennas: 49 m high, 64 m wide, 30 tons.

• Andover
• Pleumeur bodou Antenna (near Perros Guirec)

http://www.leradome.com/new/article.php3?id_article=37
Slide 23
Communication Satellites (2)

Allows for 1degree

The principal satellite bands. geostationary
spacing
Slide 24
Communication Satellites (3)

VSAT :
Very Small Aperture Terminals

VSATs using a hub.

 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
Slide 25
Iridium

66 satellites

(a) The Iridium satellites from six necklaces around the earth.
(b) 1628 moving cells cover the earth.
Slide 26
Globalstar

Iridium Globalstar
48 satellites

(a) Relaying in space.

(b) Relaying on the ground.
 Public Switched Telephone System
Slide 27

• Structure of the Telephone System

• The Politics of Telephones
• The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless
• Trunks and Multiplexing
• Switching
 Structure of the Telephone System
Slide 28

(a) Fully-interconnected network.

(b) Centralized switch.
(c) Two-level hierarchy.
Structure of the Telephone System (2)
Slide 29

A typical circuit route for a medium-distance call.

 Major Components of the
Telephone System
Slide 30

• Local loops
 Analog twisted pairs going to houses and
businesses
• Trunks
 Digital fiber optics connecting the switching
offices
• Switching offices
 Where calls are moved from one trunk to another
Slide 31
The Politics of Telephones
Geographic organisation :
LATA : Local Access and Transport Area
(164 in the US)
Company organisation :
LEC : Local Exchange Carrier
IXC : InterXchange Carrier

The relationship of LATAs, LECs, and IXCs. All the

circles are LEC switching offices. Each hexagon
belongs to the IXC whose number is on it.
 The Local Loop: Modems,
ADSL, and Wireless
Slide 32

The use of both analog and digital transmissions for a computer to

computer call. Conversion is done by the modems and codecs.
 Thursday Oct 8th 2009
Slide 33
Modems

(a) A binary signal (c) Frequency modulation

(d) Phase modulation
(b) Amplitude modulation
 Bandwidth
Slide 34
Modems (2) Symbol
Baud

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude (a) QPSK. 2bits per symbol. 1 sample = 2-bit value
(b) QAM-16. 4 bits per symbol. 1 sample = 4-bit value
Phase
(c) QAM-64. 6 bits per symbol. 1 sample = 6-bit value
Slide 35
Modems (3)

(a) V32 for 9600 bps. 4 data bit and one parity bit at 2400 baud
(b) V32 bis for 14,400 bps. 6 data bit and one parity bit at 2400 baud
V34 for 28,800 bps. 12 data bit at 2400 baud
V34bis for 33,600 bps. 14 data bit at 2400 baud
V90 for 33,6 kbps upstream and 54 kbps downstream.
V92 for 48 kbps upstream and 54 kbps downstream
Slide 36
Digital Subscriber Lines
ADSL

Bandwidth versus distanced over category 3 UTP for DSL.

Slide 37
Digital Subscriber Lines (2)

Operation of ADSL using DMT (Discrete MultiTone) modulation.

Each channel uses a V34 like scheme
Slide 38
Digital Subscriber Lines (3)

A typical ADSL equipment configuration.

DSLAM : Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer
NID : Network Interface Device
Slide 39
Wireless Local Loops
Or Wimax
802.16

Architecture of an LMDS system.

 Frequency Division Multiplexing
Slide 40

(a) The original bandwidths.

(b) The bandwidths raised in frequency.
(b) The multiplexed channel.
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Slide 41

Wavelength division multiplexing

used for fiber optics.
Slide 42
Time Division Multiplexing
125 microseconds to
allow for 8000 samples Used for
per second (Pulse
code modulation for
Copper Wires
voice)

US Japan T1 carrier
24 channels (1 for synchronisation). 7 bit data. 193 bit frame or 1.544 Mbps
International E1 carrier
32 channels (2 for signalling). 8 bit data. 256 bit frame or 2.048 Mbps
Slide 43
Time Division Multiplexing (2)

Differential Pulse Code Modulation : Delta modulation.

Idea is to transmit the difference. Here delta is stored on 1 bit.
Slide 44
Time Division Multiplexing (3)

Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers. T4 = 6T3 = 6*7T2 = 6*7*4T1

E5 = 4E4 = 16E3 = 64E2 = 256E1
 Time Division Multiplexing (4)
Slide 45 SONET/SDH : fiber optics trunks (1985)
Wednesday Oct 12th 2009

Used for Two back-to-back SONET frames.

long distance
810 bytes every 125 Synchronous Optical NETwork
microseconds
Slide 46
Time Division Multiplexing (5)

STS-768 OC-768 STM-256 39,813,120 38,486,016

STS-1536 OC-1536 STM-512 79,626,120 76,972,032

STS-3072 OC-3072 STM-1024 159,252,240 153,944,064 (2007 not manufactured yet)

SONET and SDH multiplex rates.

Slide 47
Circuit Switching

(a) Circuit switching.

(b) Packet switching.
Slide 48
Message Switching

(a) Circuit switching (b) Message switching (c) Packet switching

(b) never used in practice
Slide 49
Packet Switching

A comparison of circuit switched and packet-switched networks.

Packet switch is more fault tolerant
Slide 50
The Mobile Telephone System
• First-Generation Mobile Phones:
Analog Voice
– 1946, Car-based system, 1 frequency, 1 channel
– 1960, 2 frequencies, 23 channels, very limited
• Second-Generation Mobile Phones:
Digital Voice
– 1982, AMPS, cells with different frequencies per
channels
• Third-Generation Mobile Phones:
Digital Voice and Data
Wednesday Oct 8th 2008
Slide 51
Advanced Mobile Phone System
AMPS : Bell Labs 1982

(a) Frequencies are not reused in adjacent cells.

(b) To add more users, smaller cells can be used.
Slide 52
Channel Categories
AMPS handles 832 channels, divided into 4 categories:

• Control (base to mobile) to manage the system

• Paging (base to mobile) to alert users to calls for them

• Access (bidirectional) for call setup and channel

assignment

• Data (bidirectional) for voice, fax, or data

 D-AMPS
Slide 53
Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System

(a) A D-AMPS channel with three users.

(b) A D-AMPS channel with six users.
 GSM
Global System for Mobile Communications
Slide 54

GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which

uses an eight-slot TDM system
Slide 55
GSM (2)

A portion of the GSM framing structure.

 CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
Slide 56

A is reserved a « chip » They are all

sequence « orthogonal »
A•B = 0 (Σ aibi/8 = 0)
00011011 means 1 A • A = 1 (Σ aiai/8 = 1)
11100100 means 0

A transmits 1
B transmits 0
C does not transmit
D does not transmit

1 : C has transmitted 1
0 : C has not transmitted
-1 C has transmitted 0

(a) Binary chip sequences for four stations

(b) Bipolar chip sequences (notation convention)
(c) Six examples of transmissions
(d) Recovery of station C’s signal
 Third-Generation Mobile Phones:
Slide 57
Digital Voice and Data

Basic services an IMT-2000 network should provide

• High-quality voice transmission

• Messaging (replace e-mail, fax, SMS, chat, etc.)
• Multimedia (music, videos, films, TV, etc.)
• Internet access (web surfing, w/multimedia.)

• W-CDMA (Wideband) or UMTS pushed by Ericsson

• CDMA2000 pushed by Qualcomm
Slide 58
Cable Television

• Community Antenna Television

• Internet over Cable
• Spectrum Allocation
• Cable Modems
• ADSL versus Cable
Slide 59
Community Antenna Television

An early cable television system.

Slide 60
Internet over Cable

Cable television HFC : Hybrid Fiber Coax

Slide 61
Internet over Cable (2)

The fixed telephone system.

Dedicated connection to the home!!
Slide 62
Spectrum Allocation

Frequency allocation in a typical cable TV system

used for Internet access
Slide 63
Cable Modems

Typical details of the upstream and downstream

channels in North America.