Fibre Structure and Properties

By:
Dr. Mumtaz Hasan Malik

Advanced Textile Materials (TE-571)

Lecture Outline
1. Introduction
2. Polymerization
3. Fibre Forming
4. Intra-polymer Bonding
5. Inter-polymer Forces of Attraction
6. Requirement of Textile Fibre-forming Polymers
7. Fibre Properties

1. Introduction
Nature and characteristics of matter
Fibres are the units of matter characterized by flexibility
fineness and a high ratio of length to thickness
Textile fibres can be defined as the units of matter
characterized by flexibility fineness, high ratio of length
to thickness, high thermal stability and a certain
minimum strength and elongation.

2. Polymerization
Polymerization is a chemical reaction in which monomers are
joined end-to-end to form a polymer.
Degree of polymerization (DP) is the ratio of the average
molecular weight of the polymer to the molecular weight of the
monomer (repeating unit).
When no by-product is liberated on polymerization, the reaction is
called

addition

polyethylene,

polymerization

polypropylene,

(Acrylic,

polyvinyl

chloride and polyvinylidene chloride).

alcohol,

modacrylic,
polyvinyl

 When a by-product is also formed on polymerization, the reaction

is

called

condensation

polymerization

(polyester,

nylon,

elastomeric polymers).
Polymers are of two types, homo-polymers and copolymers.
When polymers are polymerized from only one kind of
monomers, the polymers are called homo-polymers such as nylon
6, polyethylene, polypropylene, chloro fibres (polyvinyl chloride
and polyvinylidene chloride).
Copolymers are formed from two or more different monomers
such as nylon 6.6, polyester, modacrylic.

3. Fibre Forming
After polymerization, the polymers are either melted or dissolved in a
solvent before the spinning is done to manufacture the textile fibres.
In wet spinning, polymer is dissolved in a solvent and the spinneret is
submerged in a chemical bath that causes the fibre to precipitate and
solidify when emerges (acrylic, viscose, spandex)
In dry spinning, polymers are dissolved in solvent and after extrusion
solidification of polymer is achieved through evaporation (cellulose
acetate)
In melt spinning, polymers are melted and after extrusion, the
polymer is solidified by cooling (polyester, nylon 6.6)

4. Intra-polymer Bonding
Bonds holding the atoms together to make up the fibre polymer is
called intra-polymer bonding.
Textile fibre polymers are mainly organic compounds, expect
some natural mineral and man-made inorganic fibres.
They are predominantly composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms,
with some oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine and/or fluorine atoms.
In general, single covalent bonds join the atoms forming the
polymer .

 Covalent bond between the atoms of carbon and carbon, carbon

and hydrogen, carbon and oxygen, carbon and chlorine, and
carbon and fluorine are very strong.
Much of the backbone of any polymer consists of carbon
segments of varying lengths.
The bond strength of single covalent bond joining the atoms of
fibre polymers ranges from 330-420 kilojoules.
However, segments of polymer backbone, which consist of other
atoms, also influence the properties of the polymer e.g. amide
group in nylon, peptide group in protein fibres, benzene ring
(C6H6) in polyester, either linkage (COC) in cellulose ,

 Elastomeric, polyester, ester group ( C O ) hydrogen group

(OH), and nitrile group (CN)

5. Inter-polymer Forces of Attraction

The coherence of the polymer system of a fibre is due to the
following inter-polymer forces of attraction:
Van der Waals Forces
Hydrogen Bonds
Salt Links
Cross Links

Van der Waals Forces

Van der waals forces are weak electrostatic forces which attract neutral
molecules to each other in gases, liquefied and solidified gases, organic
liquids and organic solids such as textile fibres.
If two or more atoms and/or molecules are close enough together, then
van der waals forces will exist between them.
If fibre polymers are about 0.2 nm apart, van der waals forces will occur
between them. This is the case in the crystalline regions of any fibre.
Van der waals forces are influenced by the size of the atoms, larger the
size stronger the force. (fig 1.7)

 Van der waals forces are also formed between fibre polymers and
dye molecules, when they come close enough together.
Bond energy of van der waals forces is 8.4 kilojoules.
Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bonds are weak electrostatic bonds which occur
between the covalently bonded slightly positive charged hydrogen
atoms and strongly electronegative atoms.
The distance between the two oppositely charged atoms is less
than 0.5 nm.
Bond energy 20.9 kilojoules (fig 1.8)

Salt Linkages
When ionic or electro covalent bonds are formed between the ions
or radicals of the chemical compounds the bonds are called salt
linkages.
The charged radicals are very close to each other (0.1 nm)
They occur between the polymers of protein fibres and at the
terminals of nylon fibres
They are strong force of attraction with bond energy of 54.4
kilojoules.

Cross Links
Cross links are single covalent bonds and occur between the
polymers of elastomeric and protein fibres, except silk.
The number of cross-links in a polymer system is called degree of
cross-linking.
Greater the degree of cross-linking more rigid the fibre.
The bond energy of the cross links is 245.3 kilojoules.

6. Requirement of Textile Fibre-forming

Polymers
Polymers for textile fibres may be:
Hydrophilic
Linear
Long
Orientable
Chemical Resistant
Thermal Resistant

Hydrophilic properties of polymers enhance the comfort

properties of fibres.

 Linear polymers allow adequate polymer alignment to bring into effect sufficient
inter-polymer forces of attraction to give a cohesive polymer system, thus a useful
textile fibre.
However, three-dimensional arrangements of side groups give three types of linear
polymer configurations generally referred as stereo-polymers i.e. atactic, syndiotatic
and isotactic polymers.
Atactic Polymer (Stereo-irregular)
Side groups are arranged at random above and below the plane of the polymer
backbone.
Usually not found in polymer system of fibre.
They do not allow close enough alignment of polymers to give effective interpolymer forces of attraction.

Syndiotactic Polymer (Stereo-regular)

Side groups are arranged in a regular alternation above and below the plane of

the polymer backbone.

Regular polymer structure provides close enough alignment of polymer system

to form effective polymer forces of attraction suitable for a textile fibre.

Isoactic Polymer (Stereo-regular)
Side group are arranged on the same plane of the polymer backbone.
Isotactic polymers orient themselves readily and very closely.
Effective inter-polymer forces of attraction give a cohesive polymer system

suitable for textile fibre.

 Length of the fibre polymers should be long (>100nm), longer the

polymers the more cohesive the polymer system thus stronger the fibre.
Orientation by drawing in the man-made fibre manufacturing causes
the polymer to orient themselves longitudinally into a more or less
parallel form.
Amorphous and crystalline regions are the two forms of polymer
orientation.
Fibre polymers should be chemically resistant but not inert.
Fibre polymer should have adequate heat resistance to with stand the
processing and subsequent use treatments.

7. Fibre Properties
Fibre properties are as under;
Length
Fineness
Density
Moisture Absorption

Length:
Fibre length varies greatly within any one sample of natural textile

raw materials (CV = 40 % for cotton, 50-60% for wool, 10% for
man-made staple fibre)
Length and fineness are strongly correlated with cotton and wool

(Table 3.2)
Setting of drafting rollers and control of short fibres become

difficult if length variation is great.

Larger fibre give higher spinning limit and more uniform yarn case

of cotton etc.
Short fibres produce a soft, hairy and warm surface.

Fineness:
The transverse fibre dimensions are of the utmost importance in
many contexts.
In homogenous and isotropic cylindrical materials resistance to
bending varies as the square of the cross-sectional area.
Resistance to bending diminishes as the fineness of the fibre
increases.
Fibre fineness affects the softness and drape of fabric.
Torgional rigidity increases as the fibre becomes coarse.
Finer the fibre higher the luster of the fabric.

 Higher the specific surface shorter the time require to exhaust a dye
bath and higher rate of absorption of water vapor.
Finer the fibre, lesser the amount of twist to prevent fibre slippage.
Finer the fibre, more uniform the yarn and higher the spinning
limit.
Density:
Fibre density plays a direct part in affecting the weight of fabrics,
higher the density heavier the fabric.
Density also helps to indentify fibre type.

 The best values of density are obtained with displacement of

organic liquids such as nitrobenzene, olive oil, toluene, benzene
and carbon tetrachloride.
Flotation method is also used to determine fibre density.
Density gradient tube is also used for this purpose which contains
a heavy liquid e.g. pentachloroethane (1.7 g/cm3) and a light liquid
like xylol (0.90 g/cm3).
Table 6.1
Fig 6.2

Moisture Absorption
The property of absorbing moisture is a valuable feature of clothing
materials.
It keeps the skin dry and causes the fabric to act as a heat reservoir,
protecting the body form sudden changes of external conditions.
Absorption of moisture causes swelling of fibres, which causes
changes in size, shape stiffness and permeability of yarns and
fabrics.
Moisture absorption changes the mechanical frictional and
electrical properties of fibre.
Moisture absorption has also a commercial aspects.