Dar es Salaam institute of Technology

(DIT)
ETU 08102
Digital Networks
Ally, J
jumannea@gmail.com
DIT

IP Network

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What we have today is beyond

any of the inventors
imagination

InterNetwork

Millions of end points (you, me, and toasters)

connected across a mesh of links

Many end points can be addressed by numbers

Many others lie behind a virtual end point

Many networks form a bigger network

The overall structure called the Internet

With a capital I
Defined as a network of networks

Organizing the Giant

Structure
Networks are complex!

many pieces:
hosts
Question:
routers
Is
there
any
hope
of
links of various media
organizing structure
applications
of network?
protocols
hardware
software

Turn to analogies in air travel

ticket (purchase)

ticket (complain)

baggage (check)

baggage (claim)

gates (load)

gates (unload)

runway takeoff

runway landing

airplane routing

airplane routing

airplane routing

A series of steps

Layering of Airline
Functionality
ticket (purchase)

ticket (complain)

ticket

baggage (check)

baggage (claim

baggage

gates (load)

gates (unload)

gate

runway (takeoff)

runway (land)

takeoff/landing

airplane routing

airplane routing

airplane routing

departure
airport

airplane routing

airplane routing

intermediate air-traffic
control centers

arrival
airport

Layers: each layer implements a service

layers communicate with peer layers

rely on services provided by layer below

Internet Protocol Stack

Application: supporting network applications

Transport: host-host data transfer

IP, routing protocols

Link: data transfer between neighboring

network elements

TCP, UDP

Network: routing of datagrams from source to

destination

FTP, SMTP, HTTP

PPP, Ethernet, WiFi, Bluetooth

Physical: bits on the wire

application
transport
network
link
physical

Legacy Network Architecture

Human Comm.

Computer Comm.
Voice
Voice

Data
Data

Video
Video

(TCP
(TCP // UDP)
UDP)

SS-7
SS-7

IP
v4 // v6
v6
IP v4
Network Layer

Data Link Layer

Physical Layer

ATM
ATM

Dedicated
Dedicated

SONET
SONET // SDH
SDH

Photonic
Photonic Network
Network Interface
Interface
Photonic
Photonic Network
Network (WDM)
(WDM)

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OIF: Optical Internetworking Forum

Network Architecture from Today

Network Application
Voice
Voice
Voice
Voice

Data
Data

(TCP
(TCP // UDP)
UDP)

Network Layer

Video
Video

VOIP
IP

Dedicated
Dedicated

L3-VPN

L2-VPN

v4
v4 // v6
v6

as a standard interface
Data Link Layer

Physical Layer

SONET
ATM
SONET // SDH
SDH
ATM

Photonic Network Interface

Photonic Network (WDM)

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VPN: Virtual Private Network

Structure of IP Network
1) Ethernet Switches conform Ethernet switching segments
- Mac-address are in use only in each segment
2) Routers & IP-functions in each end station realize routing plane
- IP-address are in use over inter-segment routing
3) TCP in end station control the quality and flow of the session
4) Applications in end stations communicate each other over TCP
Application session
Apl.
Apl.

Socket

TCP
TCP

Apl.
Apl.

TCP session

IP

IP

IP
IP
Router

Ethernet SW

Socket

TCP
TCP

IP

IP
IP

Router

End station

End station

Socket

Apl.
Apl.

Ethernet SW

Segment;
Ethernet SW

Ethernet Switching

Apl.
Apl.

Segment;

TCP
TCP

TCP
TCP

IP
IP

End station

Socket

Ethernet Switching

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End station

IP
IP

Evolution of IP Network

Improving the capacity of network

Transmission Speed: Ethernet

Switching capacity: Ethernet Switch
Routing capacity: Routing Engine

Re-constructing the network

Management System based on IP-plane

MPLS & G-MPLS
Services on IP Network
VPN
IP Telephony
NGN (Next Generation Network)
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Network and Host

Using the IP address
of the
Addressing
destination network, a router
can deliver a packet to the
correct network.

When the packet arrives at a

router connected to the
destination network, the router
uses the IP address to locate
the particular computer
connected to that network.
Accordingly, every IP address
has two parts.
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Network Layer Communication

Path
A router forwards packets
from the originating
network to the destination network using the IP
protocol. The packets must include an identifier for
both the source and destination networks.

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Internet Addresses
IP Addressing is a hierarchical structure. An IP address
combines two identifiers into one number. This number must be
a unique number, because duplicate addresses would make
routing impossible. The first part identifies the system's network
address. The second part, called the host part, identifies which
particular machine it is on the network.

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IP Address Classes
IP addresses are divided into classes to define the large,
medium, and small networks.
Class A addresses are assigned to larger networks.
Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks.
Class C for small networks.

Address
Class
A
B
C

Number of
Networks
126
16,384
2,097,152

Number of Hosts
per Network
16,777,214
65,534
254
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Identifying Address
Classes

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Network and Host Division

Each complete 32-bit IP address is broken down into a
network part and a host part. A bit or bit sequence at the
start of each address determines the class of the address.
There are 5 IP address classes.

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Class A Addresses
The Class A address was designed to support extremely
large networks, with more than 16 million host addresses
available. Class A IP addresses use only the first octet to
indicate the network address. The remaining three octets
provide for host addresses.

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Class B Addresses
The Class B address was designed to support the needs
of moderate to large-sized networks. A Class B IP address
uses the first two of the four octets to indicate the network
address. The other two octets specify host addresses.

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Class C Addresses
The Class C address space is the most commonly
used of the original address classes. This address
space was intended to support small networks with a
maximum of 254 hosts.

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Class D Addresses
The Class D address class was created to enable
multicasting in an IP address. A multicast address is a
unique network address that directs packets with that
destination address to predefined groups of IP addresses.
Therefore, a single station can simultaneously transmit a
single stream of data to multiple recipients.

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Class E Addresses
A Class E address has been defined. However, the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) reserves
these addresses for its own research. Therefore, no
Class E addresses have been released for use in the
Internet.

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Converting Between Decimal

Numbers and Binary

In any given octet of an IP address, the 8 bits can be defined as

follows:
27

26

25

24

23

22

21

20

128

64

32

16

To convert a decimal number into binary

187 = 10111011 = 128+32+16+8+2+1, 224 = 11100000 = 128+64+32
To convert a binary number into decimal
10101010 = 128+32+8+2 = 170, 11110000 = 128+64+32+16 = 240
The IP address 138.101.114.250 is represented in binary as
10001010.01100101.01110010.11111010
The subnet mask of 255.255.255.192 is represented in binary as
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000

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IP Address Ranges

The graphic below shows the IP address range of the

first octet both in decimal and binary for each IP
address class.

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Finding the Network Address with

ANDing
By ANDing the Host address
of 192.168.10.2 with 255.255.255.0
(its network mask) we obtain the network address of 192.168.10.0

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Network Address

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Public IP Addresses

Unique addresses are required for each device on a network.

Originally, an organization known as the Internet Network
Information Center (InterNIC) handled this procedure.
InterNIC no longer exists and has been succeeded by the
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
No two machines that connect to a public network can have the
same IP address because public IP addresses are global and
standardized.
All machines connected to the Internet agree to conform to the
system.
Public IP addresses must be obtained from an Internet service
provider (ISP) or a registry at some expense.

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Private IP Addresses
Private IP addresses are another solution to the problem of
the impending exhaustion of public IP addresses. As
mentioned, public networks require hosts to have unique IP
addresses.
However, private networks that are not connected to the
Internet may use any host addresses, as long as each host
within the private network is unique.

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Introduction to Subnetting
Subnetting a network means to use the subnet mask to
divide the network and break a large network up into
smaller, more efficient and manageable segments, or
subnets.
With subnetting, the network is not limited to the default,
Class A, B, or C network masks and there is more
flexibility in the network design.
Subnet addresses include the network portion, plus a
subnet field and a host field. The ability to decide how to
divide the original host portion into the new subnet and
host fields provides addressing flexibility for the network
administrator.
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The 32-Bit Binary IP Address

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Numbers That Show Up In Subnet

Masks (Memorize Them!)

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Addressing with Subnetworks

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Subnet Example 1
The DIT has purchased the class C address 216.21.5.0 and want to use it for
five (5) networks.
Determine the number of networks and convert to binary
5 in binary is 00000101
We need to borrow 3 bits from host and use them as network bits
Reserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment
Subnet mask for class C
255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
The new subnet mask for class C (Add 3 bits in host octet)
255.255.255.224 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000
The increment is 100000 = 32
Use increment to find your network ranges
216.21.5.0 216.21.5.31, 216.21.5.32 216.21.5.63
216.21.2.64 216.21.5.95 .. 216.21.5.192 216.21.5.223

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Subnet Example 2
The DIT has purchased the class C address 195.5.20.0 and want to
use it for fifty (50) networks.
Determine the number of networks and convert to binary
50 in binary is 00110010
We need to borrow 6 bits from host and use them as network bits
Reserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment
Subnet mask for class C
255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
The new subnet mask for class C (Add 6 bits in host octet)
255.255.255.252 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100
The increment is 100 = 4
Use increment to find your network ranges
195.5.20.0 195.5.20.3, 195.5.20.4 195.5.20.7
195.5.20.8 195.5.20.11 . 195.5.20.248 195.5.20.251

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Subnet Example 3
The DIT has purchased the class B address 150.5.0.0 and want to use
it for 100 networks.
Determine the number of networks and convert to binary
100 in binary is 01100100
We need to borrow 7 bits from host and use them as network bits
Reserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment
Subnet mask for class B
255.255.0.0 = 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
The new subnet mask for class B (Add 7 bits in host octet)
255.255.254.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111110.00000000
The increment is 10 = 2
Use increment to find your network ranges
150.5.0.0 150.5.1.255, 150.5.2.0 150.5.3.255
150.5.4.0 150.5.5.255, . 150.5.252.0 150.5.253.255

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Subnet Example 4
The DIT has purchased the class A address 10.0.0.0 and want to use it for
500 networks.
Determine the number of networks and convert to binary
500 in binary is 0111110100
We need to borrow 9 bits from host and use them as network bits
Reserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment
Subnet mask for class A
255.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
The new subnet mask for class A (Add 9 bits in host octet)
255.255.128.0 = 11111111.11111111.10000000.00000000
The increment is 10000000 = 128
Use increment to find your network ranges
10.0.0.0 10.0.127.255, 10.0.128.0 10.0.255.255
10.1.0.0 10.1.127.255, 10.1.128.0 10.1.255.255 ..
10.254.128.0 10.254.255.255

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Exercise 1
1. (C) 200.1.1.0, Break into 40 networks
2. (C) 199.9.10.0, Break into 14 networks
3. (B) 170.50.0.0, Break into 1000 networks
4. (A) 12.0.0.0, Break into 25 networks
Also determine the total number of hosts per
networks
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Host Example 1
DIT has purchased class C address 216.21.5.0 and would like to use it
to create networks of 30 hosts each
Determine the number of hosts and convert to binary
30 in binary is 00011110
We need to save 5 bits for host, use 3 bits remain for network
Reserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment
Subnet mask for class C
255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
The new subnet mask for class C (Add 3 bits in host octet)
255.255.255.224 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000
The increment is 100000 = 32
Use increment to find your network ranges
216.21.5.0 216.21.5.31, 216.21.5.32 216.21.5.63
216.21.2.64 216.21.5.95 .. 216.21.5.224 216.21.5.255

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Host Example 2
The DIT has purchased the class C address 195.5.20.0 and want to
use it for 50 hosts each.
Determine the number of hosts and convert to binary
50 in binary is 00110010
We need to save 6 bits from host, use 2 bits remain for network
Reserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment
Subnet mask for class C
255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
The new subnet mask for class C (Add 2 bits in host octet)
255.255.255.192 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000
The increment is 1000000 = 64
Use increment to find your network ranges
195.5.20.0 195.5.20.63, 195.5.20.64 195.5.20.127
195.5.20.128 195.5.20.191, 195.5.20.192 195.5.20.255

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Host Example 3
The DIT has purchased the class B address 150.5.0.0 and want to use
it for 500 hosts each.
Determine the number of hosts and convert to binary
500 in binary is 0111110100
We need to save 9 bits from host, use 7 bits remain for network
Reserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment
Subnet mask for class B
255.255.0.0 = 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
The new subnet mask for class B (Add 7 bits in host octet)
255.255.254.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111110.00000000
The increment is 10 = 2
Use increment to find your network ranges
150.5.0.0 150.5.1.255, 150.5.2.0 150.5.3.255
150.5.4.0 150.5.5.255, . 150.5.252.0 150.5.253.255

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Host Example 4
The DIT has purchased the class A address 10.0.0.0 and want to use it for
100 networks.
Determine the number of hosts and convert to binary
100 in binary is 01100100
We need to save 7 bits from host, use 17 bits remain for network
Reserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment
Subnet mask for class A
255.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
The new subnet mask for class A (Add 17 bits in host octet)
255.255.225.128 = 11111111.11111111.10000000.00000000
The increment is 10000000 = 128
Use increment to find your network ranges
10.0.0.0 10.0.127.255, 10.0.128.0 10.0.255.255
10.1.0.0 10.1.127.255, 10.1.128.0 10.1.255.255 ..
10.254.128.0 10.254.255.255

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Exercise 2
1. (C) 200.1.1.0, Break into networks of 40 hosts
each
2. (C) 199.9.10.0, Break into networks of 12
hosts each
3. (B) 170.50.0.0, Break into networks of 1000
hosts each
4. (A) 12.0.0.0, Break into networks of 100 hosts
each
Also determine the total number of networks
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Exercise 3
1) The host has an IP and mask address of
192.168.1.127 and 255.255.255.224
respectively. What is the network address of
the host, and state that if the IP address of the
host is assigned correct.
2) The host has an IP, mask and gateway
address of 172.16.68.65, 255.255.255.240
and 172.16.68.62 respectively, is connected to
the network router of IP and mask address of
172.16.68.62 and 255.255.255.240 respectively.
Determine that if the above configuration is correct.
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Why not IPv4

IPv4 has been extremely successful.

It is beginning to show its age as the internet
grows.
In order to meet the challenges of the rapidly
growing internet, new features and scalability
measures will be needed.
IPv6 is an evolutionary step to the current
IPv4.
It uses the best of IPv4 and takes into
account all of the lessons that have been
learned over the years of its use.
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IPv6 Development History

1991: Work starts on next generation Internet

protocols

1993: IETF forms IPng Directorate

To select the new protocol by consensus

1995: IPv6 selected

More than 6 different proposals were developed

Evolutionary (not revolutionary) step from IPv4

1996: 6Bone started

1998: IPv6 standardized
Today: Initial products and deployments
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Necessity for IPv6

32-bit addressing structure of IPv4 provides only
Addresses
4,294,967,296 IP numbers
In order to use this address space more efficiently,
technologies such as CIDR, DHCP, Pvt IP, NAT etc. were
developed
These interim solutions helped only to postpone exhaustion
of IPv4 address space.
Exponential growth of Internet, Wireless Subscribers and
deployment of NGN Technology etc. demand still a large
amount of address space
IPv6 is meticulously designed to correct some problems of
IPv4 and to provide various enhancements with respect to
security, routing addresses, auto configuration, mobility and
Quality of Service (QoS) etc.

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Larger IP Address Space

IPv4 address space is 32 bits long

4,294,967,296 possible hosts

New types of devices need to be addressed

Mobile/wireless devices
Desktop devices

NAT works, but is not ideal

IPv6 address space is 128 bits long

340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 possible hosts

= 67 billion billion addresses per cm 2 of the planet surface

End-to-end addressing

No need for Network Address Translation (NAT)

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New Rationale behind IPv6

IP Everywhere for Data, Voice, Audio, Video

integration

Emerging Internet Countries

~300 millions Mobile Phone Users in 1998, 700 millions

in 2004
3G will support IP
1 billion Cars in 2010 with GPS & Yellow Page services
PDAs, Toasters, Fridges, ...
China, India, Russia,
Internet in every school,...

New Technologies/Applications for Home users

Cable, xDSL, Wireless,...

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IPv6 deployment

The existing pool of IPv4 addresses is expected to be

exhausted by August-2012
All service providers and other stakeholders will gradually
transit to IPv6 in a phased manner
The co-existence of IPv4 & Ipv6 will be there for some more
years to come.
There are 2 operating situations
(a) IPv6 nodes have to communicate with IPv4 nodes.
This problem is solved using Dual Stack technique.
(b) Isolated islands of IPv6 will have to communicate
with each other using the widely available IPv4
networks. This problem is solved using Tunneling
technique.

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IPv6 Main Features

Expanded Address Space

Header Format Simplification
Improved host and router discovery
Auto-configuration
Multi-Homing
Class of Service/Multimedia support
Improved Mobile IP support
Authentication and Privacy Capabilities
No more broadcast Multicast
Anycast
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IPv6 Address Syntax

IPv6 address in binary form

0010000000000001000011011011100000000000000000000010111100111011
0000001010101010000000001111111111111110001010001001110001011010

Divided along 16-bit boundaries

0010000000000001 0000110110111000 0000000000000000 0010111100111011
0000001010101010 0000000011111111 1111111000101000 1001110001011010

Each 16-bit block is converted to hexadecimal

and delimited with colons
2001:0DB8:0000:2F3B:02AA:00FF:FE28:9C5A
Suppress leading zeros within each block
2001:DB8:0:2F3B:2AA:FF:FE28:9C5A
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IPv6 Packet Header

IPv4 header fields

are very detailed.
Some of the
information is rarely
used or poorly
defined.

Other information is
no longer needed.

Example: Type of
Service

Example: Header
Checksum

IPv6 has a simplified

header with only the
minimum number of
necessary fields.

IPv4 Header
Version IHL Type of Service
Flags

Identification
Time to Live

Total Length

Protocol

Fragment Offset

Header Checksum

Source Address
Destination Address
Options

Padding

IPv6 Header
Version Traffic Class
Payload Length

Flow Label
Next Header Hop Limit

Source Address
Destination Address

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IPv6 Packet Header (2)

Version - A 4-bit field, set to the number six for IPv6

Traffic Class - Also called priority. Similar to the
type of service (ToS) field in IPv4, this 8-bit field
describes relative priority and is used for quality of
service (QoS)
Flow Label - The 20-bit flow label allows traffic to
be tagged so that it can be handled faster, on a perflow basis; this field can also be used to associate
flows with traffic classes
Payload Length - This 16-bit field is the length of
the data in the packet.
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IPv6 Packet Header (3)

Next Header - Like the protocol field in the IPv4 header,

this 8-bit field indicates how the fields after the IPv6 basic
header should be interpreted.
It could indicate that the following field is (TCP) or
(UDP) transport layer information, or it could indicate
that an extension header is present.
Hop Limit - Similar to the time to live (TTL) field of IPv4,
this 8-bit field is decremented by intermediate routers and,
to prevent looping, the packet is discarded and a message
is sent back to the source if this field reaches zero
Source Address and Destination Address - These 128bit fields are the IPv6 source and destination addresses of
the communicating devices.
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IPv6 Addressing

IPv6 Addressing rules are covered by multiples

RFCs

Address Types are :

Architecture defined by RFC 2373

Unicast : One to One (Global, Link local, Site local,

Compatible)
Anycast : One to Nearest (Allocated from Unicast)
Multicast : One to Many
No Broadcast Address -> Use Multicast
Reserved

A single interface may be assigned multiple IPv6

addresses of any type (unicast, anycast, multicast)
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IPv6 Addressing (Cont.)

Prefix Format (PF) Allocation

PF = 0000 0000 : Reserved
PF = 0000 001 : Reserved for OSI NSAP Allocation (see
RFC 1888), so far only way to embedded E.164
addresses (VoIP)
PF = 0000 010 : Reserved for IPX Allocation (under
Study)
PF = 001 : Aggregatable Global Unicast Address
PF = 1111 1110 10 : Link Local Use Addresses
PF = 1111 1110 11 : Site Local Use Addresses
PF = 1111 1111 : Multicast Addresses
Other values are currently Unassigned (approx. 7/8th of
total)

All Prefix Formats have to have EUI-64 bits Interface ID

But Multicast
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IPv6 Addressing
Global unicast address(es)
is :
Examples

2001:304:101:1::E0:F726:4E58,
subnet is 2001:304:101:1::0/64

link-local address is FE80::E0:F726:4E58

Unspecified Address is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 or ::

Loopback Address is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 or ::1

Group Addresses (Multicast) is FF02::9 for RIPv6

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Text Representation of IPv6

Addresses

Preferred form:
1080:0:FF:0:8:800:200C:417A

Compressed form: FF01:0:0:0:0:0:0:43

becomes FF01::43

IPv4-compatible: 0:0:0:0:0:0:13.1.68.3
or ::13.1.68.3

RFC 2732: Preferred format for literal IPv6

address in URL
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Benefits of IPv6
Enough for stable, unique addresses for all
Addresses
devices

Note: stable does not mean permanent!

Allow continued growth of the Internet (for
centuries to come)
Restore end-to-end transparency of the Internet

Additional benefits:

Plug-and-play (no need for configuration servers)

Verifiable end-to-end packet integrity (no need for
NATs)
Simpler mobility (no need for foreign agent
function)
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Configuring Interface
There are severalIDs
choices for configuring the
interface ID of an address:

Manual configuration
DHCPv6 (configures whole address)
Automatic derivation from MAC address or other
hardware serial number
Pseudo-random generation (for client privacy)

The latter two choices enable serverless or

stateless autoconfiguration, when combined
with high-order part of the address learned
via Router Advertisements
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EUI-64 Interface ID Example

Host A has the MAC address of 00-AA-00-3F-2A-1C
1. Convert MAC address to EUI-64 format
00-AA-00-FF-FE-3F-2A-1C
2. Complement the U/L bit (seventh bit of first byte)
The first byte in binary form is 00000000. When
the seventh bit is complemented, it becomes
00000010 (0x02).
02-AA-00-FF-FE-3F-2A-1C
3. Convert to colon hexadecimal notation
::2AA:FF:FE3F:2A1C
Link-local address for node with the MAC address of 00AA00-3F-2A-1C is FE80::2AA:FF:FE3F:2A1C
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An example of IPv6
LAN: 3ffe:b00:c18:1::/64
addresses
Ethernet0

interface Ethernet0
ipv6 address 2001:410:213:1::/64 eui-64

MAC address: 0060.3e47.1530

router# show ipv6 interface Ethernet0

Ethernet0 is up, line protocol is up
IPv6 is enabled, link-local address is FE80::260:3EFF:FE47:1530
Global unicast address(es):
2001:410:213:1:260:3EFF:FE47:1530, subnet is 2001:410:213:1::/64
Joined group address(es):
FF02::1:FF47:1530
FF02::1
FF02::2
MTU is 1500 bytes

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IPv4-IPv6 CoA wideExistence/Transition

range of techniques have been identified and
implemented, basically falling into three categories:

Dual-stack techniques, to allow IPv4 and IPv6 to coexist in the same devices and networks
Tunneling techniques, to avoid order dependencies
when upgrading hosts, routers, or regions
Translation techniques, to allow IPv6-only devices to
communicate with IPv4-only devices

Expect all of these to be used, in combination

RFC 2893, Transition Mechanisms for IPv6 Hosts

and Routers, August 2000.
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Native IPv6-Only
Backbone
Requires:
IPv4 Intranet

IPv4 over IPv6

Tunnels for
IPv4 traffic
IPv4 Tunnel
Hardware
forwarding for
IPv6
Network
management
IPv6 Intranet
over IPv6

Translating
Gateway

IPv6 Backbone

Translating
Gateway

Mobile IPv6

DIT

IPv6 Intranet

IPv4/v6 Intranet

Dual Stack IPv4-IPv6

Backbone

DIT

Diversity of Today's Available Mobile

Devices

DIT

Thanks!

Technology changes but communication lasts.

DIT