Heat Transfer

Types of refrigerants
Refrigerants are categorised by their chemical composition of
chlorine, fluorine, carbon and hydrogen. We have four
categories that we use and below is mentioned examples of
refrigerants in the different groups and their composition.
CFC: Chlorine-Fluorine-Carbon
HCFC:

Hydrogen-Chlorine-Fluorine-Carbon

HFC: Hydrogen-Fluorine-Carbon
HC:

Hydrogen-Carbon

Category Type

Trade name Mixture

CFC
R-11
Freon,
(100) trichlorofluoromethane

Chemical name

Genetron,

Frigen 11 R-11

CCl3F
R-12
Freon, Genetron,
(100) dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2)

Frigen 12 R-12
2

Types of refrigerants, contd.

HCFC R-22 Freon, Genetron, Solkane 22 R-22 (100)
chlorodifluoromethane (CHCLF2)
HFC

R-23 Freon, Genetron, Solkane 23 R-23 (100)

trifluoromethane (CHF3)
R-134a

Klea,

Genetron, Solkane 134a R-134a (100)

1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (CH2FCF3)
R-404a Suva HP62, Atochem FX-70
R-125/143a/134a (44/52/4) R-413a Isceon 49 Rodia
R-218/134a/600a (9/88/3) - R-417a Isceon 59 Rodia
R-125/134a/600 (46,6/50/3,4) - HC & natural
R-290 Propane HC-290 (100) CH3CH2CH3
R-600a Isobutane R-600a (100) CH(CH3)2-CH3
R-717 Ammonia R-717 (100) NH3
R-744 Carbon Dioxide R-744 (100) CO2

Safety considerations
Refrigerants have to be handled correctly and one has to
observe the correct safety precautions to avoid accidents.
There are three factors that have to be taken into
consideration:
1. Poisonous products develop when refrigerants are
exposed to high temperatures, which is why smoking is
forbidden around refrigeration installations. Before any
soldering or brazing is performed on piping or components the
system has to be emptied of refrigerant.
2.Leaking refrigerant can cause freezer burns as the boiling
point temperature of refrigerants at normal atmospheric
pressure are well below the freezing point. Goggles and gloves
have to be worn when handling refrigerants.
4

Safety Precautions contd.

3. Inhalation of larger amounts of refrigerant can cause:
Headache, difficulty of breathing, irregular heart beat, narcosis,
dizziness and irritation of the respiratory system.

Global warming
One impact that the burning of fossil fuels has had on the earth's
environment has been the increase of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
earth's atmosphere. The amount of atmospheric CO2 apparently
remained stable for centuries, at about 260 ppm (parts per million),
but over the past 100 years it has increased to 350 ppm.
The significance of this change is its potential of raising the
temperature of the earth through the process known as the
greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere tends to
prevent the escape of outgoing long-wave radiation from the earth to
outer space; as more heat is produced and less escapes, the
temperature of the earth increases.
5

Global Warming contd.

A significant global warming of the atmosphere would have
profound environmental effects. It would speed the melting of
polar ice caps, raise sea levels, change the climate regionally
and globally, alter natural vegetation, and affect crop
production. These changes would, in turn, have an enormous
impact on human civilisation.

Since 1850 there has been a mean rise in global temperature

of about 1 C. Some scientists have predicted that rising levels
of CO2 and other greenhouse gases will cause temperatures
to continue to increase, with estimates ranging from 2 to 6 C
by the middle of the 21st century. However, other scientists who
research climate effects and trends dispute the theories of
global warming, and attribute the most recent rise to normal
temperature fluctuations.
6

Ozone layer
The Ozone Layer, in nature, a region of the atmosphere from 19 to 48 km
(12 to 30 miles) above the earth's surface. Ozone concentrations of as
much as 10 parts per million occur in the ozone layer. The ozone forms
there by the action of sunlight on oxygen. This action has been taking place
for many millions of years, but naturally occurring nitrogen compounds in
the atmosphere apparently have kept the ozone concentration at a fairly
stable level.
Concentrations this high at ground level are dangerous to human health;
but because the ozone layer protects life on earth from the full force of the
sun's cancer-causing ultraviolet radiation, it is critically important.
Therefore, scientists were concerned when they discovered, in the 1970s,
that certain chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs (compounds of
fluorine) - long used as refrigerants and in aerosol spray cans - posed a
possible threat to the ozone layer. Released into the atmosphere, the
chlorine-containing chemicals rise and are broken down by sunlight,
whereupon the chlorine reacts with and destroys ozone molecules. For this
reason, the use of CFCs in aerosols has been banned in many countries.
Other chemicals, such as bromine halocarbons, and nitrous oxides from
7
fertilisers, may also attack the ozone layer.

Ozone layer, contd.

For several years, beginning in the late 1970s, research scientists working
in Antarctica detected a periodic loss of ozone in the atmosphere high
above that continent. The so-called ozone hole develops in the Antarctic
spring and continues for several months before closing up again. Other
studies, conducted using high-altitude balloons and weather satellites,
indicated that the overall percentage of ozone in the Antarctic ozone layer is
declining. Flights over the Arctic regions found a similar problem developing
there.
In 1985, a United Nations convention known as the Montreal Protocol,
signed by 49 countries, stated the intention of phasing out CFCs by the end
of the century. In 1987, a treaty for the protection of the ozone layer was
signed and later ratified by 36 nations. A total ban on the use of CFCs
during the 1990s was proposed by the European Community (now the
European Union) in 1989, and endorsed by United States President George
Bush. In order to monitor ozone depletion on a global level, in 1991 NASA
launched the 7-ton Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite. Orbiting earth at
an altitude of 600 km (372 miles), the spacecraft measures ozone variations
at different altitudes, and is providing the first complete picture of upper
atmosphere chemistry.
8

Ozone Destruction
In the 1970s and 1980s, scientists began to find that human activity was
having a detrimental effect on the global ozone layer, a region of the
atmosphere that shields the earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays.
Without this gaseous layer, which is found at about 40 km (25 miles) above
sea level, no life could survive on the planet. Studies showed the ozone
layer was being damaged by the increasing use of industrial chemicals
called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs, compounds of fluorine) which are used in
refrigeration, air conditioning, cleaning solvents, packing materials, and
aerosol sprays.
Chlorine, a chemical by-product of CFCs, attacks ozone, which consists of
three molecules of oxygen, by taking one molecule away to form chlorine
monoxide. Chlorine monoxide then reacts with oxygen atoms to form
oxygen molecules, releasing chlorine molecules that break up other
molecules of ozone.

It was initially thought that the ozone layer was being reduced
gradually all over the globe. In 1985, however, further research
revealed a growing ozone hole concentrated above Antarctica;
50 per cent or more of the ozone above this area of the earth
9

A thinning of the ozone layer exposes life on earth to excessive ultraviolet

radiation, which can increase skin cancer and cataracts, reduce immune
system responses, interfere with the photosynthetic process of plants, and
affect the growth of oceanic phytoplankton.
Because of the growing threat of these dangerous environmental effects,
many nations are working towards eliminating the manufacture and use of
CFCs at least by the year 2000. However, CFCs can remain in the
atmosphere for more than 100 years, so ozone destruction will continue to
pose a threat for decades to come.
Environmental considerations
Today the choice of refrigerant cannot be based exclusively on efficiency.
Environmental considerations and the expected future regulation of the use
must be considered, too. The two main factors that are of concern to the
environment are Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) and Global Warming
Potential (The Greenhouse Effect) (GWP). Below table shows a comparison
of different refrigerants on these two factors.
10

Refrigerant

Years

ODP

GWP

R-11 (CFC)

60

1.00

R-12 (CFC)

120

0.93

R-22 (HCFC)

19

0.05

R-134a (HFC)

16

0.00

0.28

R-717 (NH3)

<2 weeks

0.00

0.00

1.00
3.20
0.34

Years = Atmospheric lifetime

ODP = Ozone Depletion Potential
GWP = Global Warming Potential

11

In the list the ODP and GWP are relatively figures and made in
relation to CFC R11, which is chosen as reference. According to this
for instance R22 is 20 times better than R11 on ODP and 2.5 times
better on GWP.
Another Method to calculate the environmental impact of refrigerants
is Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI), which is the sum of the
direct effect and the indirect effect. The indirect effect includes the
environmental impact during the energy production for the operation
of the refrigeration plant, and thus the efficiency of the refrigerant as
such is considered.
If - regionally or internationally - an environmental duty based on
CO2-emission is decided, it will be a calculation of the TEWI that
should be taken into consideration when choosing a refrigerating
plant and/or a refrigerant.

12

Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from one

object to another object.
Heat Is a form of energy transferred by a difference in
temperature.
Heat transfer can occur, when there is a temperature
difference between two or more objects. Heat will only
flow from a warm object to a colder object.
The heat transfer is greatest, when there is a large
temperature difference between two objects.
If any liquid is allowed to pass through an orifice, the
total heat energy of the liquid before expansion will be
same as the total heat energy after expansion.
13

Phase Change Diagram

14

The Boiling Point Depends on the Liquid Temperature

and the Atmospheric Pressure

15

The Boiling Point Depends on the Liquid Temperature and

the Atmospheric Pressure

16

p-h diagram (Mollier)

Evaporation vs Boiling
Bothstartwithaliquidandendwithagas.Buttheyare
differentprocesses.
Evaporation:
Strictlyasurfacephenomena
Occursatanytemperature
Somehotter(faster)-than-averageparticlesovercomethe
forces
theyfeelfromtheirneighborsandescapethe
liquid,takingtheirheatenergywiththem.
Forcesonlyfeltfromparticlesbeneaththem

18

Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point

Evaporationinaclosedcontainerwillproceeduntil
thereareasmanymoleculesreturningtotheliquid
fromthevaporabovetheliquidasthereare
escaping-thevaporisthensaidtobesaturated.The
pressureofthatvaporiscalledthesaturatedvapor
pressure.

19

Boiling:
Happens throughout the liquid.
Occurs at the boiling point/temperature
Average motion of particles is fast enough to
overcome the forces holding them close
together - all the particles are trying to escape
- liquid turns to vapor
Forces felt from particles all around them
Boiling point dependent on atmospheric
pressure - steam bubbles form in liquid only
when vapor (steam) pressure exceeds
atmospheric pressure (plus pressure of water
20
pushing down)

Molecular kinetic energy is

greater at higher
temperature - more
molecules can escape the
surface and the saturated
vapor pressure is
correspondingly higher.
If the liquid is open to the
air, then the pressure of the
air opposes the escape of
the molecules.
The temperature at which
the vapor pressure is equal
to the atmospheric pressure
is called the boiling point.
21

Heat of Fusion Measurement

Add 10 grams of ice (at 0 C) to 100 grams of water.

What is the heat of fusion of water?

Mass of water=M

Mass of ice =m

Hf= heat of fusion of water

To = initial temperature of ice

Tw = initial temperature of water

Tf = final temperature of water

Heat required to melt the ice = mHf

Heat required to raise the temperature of melted

ice to final temperature of water = cm T = cm(Tf
- To)

Heat absorbed from water = cM T = cM(Tw-Tf)

22

Properties of liquid at varying temperature

Saturation Temperature can be defined as the

temperature of a liquid, vapor, or a solid, where if any
heat is added or removed, a change of state takes
place.
Latent Heat- The heat required to change a
liquid to a gas (or the heat that must be removed
from a gas to condense it to a liquid), without
any change in temperature.
A fluid requires and absorbs large quantities of
heat when it changes state from liquid to a
vapour. The heat absorbed during this process is
called the latent heat of evaporation.
Liquification. A vapour or gas can be liquified by
compression and cooling . This process is called
liquification.
23

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDIONING

The object of refrigeration is to prolong the storage life
of a perishable food product by lowering its temperature
so that metobolic detoriaration and decay caused by
micro-organism are retarded.
The perishable cargo being carried by sea under
refrigeration in refrigerated vessels and in containers.
Perishables materials are Frozen produce, meats,
seafood , diary produce such as flowering bulbs and
fresh flowers , confectionary, chemicals,pharmaceuticals
and photographic
24

There are four main components in a refrigeration system:

1.The Compressor 2.The Condensing Coil 3.The Metering Device
4.The Evaporator
Two different pressures exist in the refrigeration cycle. The
evaporator or low pressure, in the "low side" and the
condenser, or high pressure, in the "high side". These pressure
areas are divided by the other two components. On one end, is
the metering device which controls the refrigerant flow, and25on
the other end, is the compressor.

Refrigeration cycle

26

Refrigeration unit

27

Refrigeration cycle

28

Cold Room

29

30

Flow diagram of vapour compression system

31

Vapour compression system

Thecompressorremovesthevapourfromtheevaporator,the
temperatureandpressureofthevapourareraisedby
compression.
Thecompressedvapourflowsthrothehotgasdischargeline
intothecondenser,usingwaterorairascoolingmedium.
Thevapourinthecondenserfirstgivesupitssuperheatand
thencooledfromthedischargetemperaturetothesaturation
tempcorrespondingtocondensingpressurethengivesupits
latentheatasitcondensesbacktoliquid.Theliquidthenflows
fromthebottomofthereceivertocompletethecycle.
Whentheliquidtempisbelowthecondensingtempitissaid
32
tobesubcooled.

Vapour compression system

Theliquidrefrigerantstoredathighpressureinthereceiver.
Itflowsthroughtheliquidlinetotheflowcontrolvalve
(Thermostaticexpansionvalve)whichregulatestherateof
flowtotheevaporatortosuittheevaporationandalsothe
pressureoftheliquidisreducedtotheevaporatingpressureso
thatthetemperatureoftherefrigerantenteringtheevaporator
isbelowthatrequiredintherefrigeratedspace.
Theliquidvapourrefrigerantmixturethenflowsthroughthe
evaporatorextractsheatfromtherefrigeratedspaceand
changestoadrysaturatedvapouratapproxthesametempand
pressureatwhichitlefttheflowcontrolvalve.
33

Compressor types

34

Refrigeration Compressors:
Types:
1. Reciprocatingcompressors.
2. Screwcompressors.
3. Centrifugalcompressors.
4. HermeticorSemi-Hermeticcompressor.
5. ScrollCompressors

35

Compressor

The suction stroke is when the

piston moves downwards in the
cylinder, and when the pressure
in the cylinder is lower than the
pressure in the suction port, the
inlet valve will open.
The refrigerant vapours are
sucked into the cylinder.
When the piston changes
direction the compression begins
and the inlet valve closes.
When the pressure in the cylinder
is higher than the pressure in the
outlet port, the outlet valve will
open and the refrigerant vapours
are discharged.
36

37

Fridge compressor

Compressor bodies
are normally of close
grained castings of
iron or steel. Modern
valves are of the
reed or disc type
mounted in the head
and are of high grade
steel on stainless
steel seats with a
usual lift of about
2mm. Connecting
rods are aluminium
with steel backed
white metal big ends.
The crankshaft is
spheriodal graphite
iron.
38

Fridge compressor

The pistons are

made from cast iron
in older units, and
of aluminium alloy
more recently.
The piston is
attached to the
crankshaft by con
rod in the normal
manner.
It should be noted
that the crankcase
is full of refrigerant
gas at suction
pressure.
39

Fridge compressor

Liners are made from

high tensile cast iron.
Lubrication is generally
splash only for smaller
compressors with a
crankshaft driven gear
pump supplying bearings
on larger machines.
It is important to
understand that actual
pumped lube oil pressure
is the indicated pressure
less this crankcase
pressure.
40

Fridge compressor

The properties of the

Lubricating oil used in
are compressors are
critical and specific to
the refrigerant gas
used.

41

Advantages of Reciprocating compressor:

This is ideal for refrigerant plant having small displacement
and high condensing pressure.
As the valve area is limited it is uneconomical for low-pressure
refrigerant.Economical in manufacture and durable.
Advantages of Screw Compressor:
Unaffected by load variation.
Oil injection extends the working range.
Vibration free operation.
Continuous capacity control from 100% to 10%.
Period between successive overhauls can be extended.
Due to faults in line, if the Freon is drawn in, it will pass
through without damaging the compressor.
Disadvantage:
A large and efficient oil separator is needed due to injection
42
of oil.

Compressor shaft seal

43

Mechanical seal
The carbon seal and
flexible bellows is
fixed in way of the
mounting plate and
the hard running
surface is allowed to
rotate.
This is the opposite to
the set up for seals
mounted on pumps.
The finish of the running
surface of the seal is
extremely fine.

44

Mechanical seal

when the surface has been

damaged say by the deposit
of copper, it is possible to lap
the face of the carbon.
The method recommended
is metal polish such as
brasso, on a true flat surface
on which is laid chart paper.
The chart paper absorbs the
wear particles as they are
removed an a reasonable
finish is possible
45

Semi Hermetic
Compressors

In semi-hermetic compressors
the electrical motor and the
compressor are built together
and the shaft seal is avoided
The electric motor is cooled by
means of the refrigerant
vapours being sucked through
the motor before entering the
cylinder. The whole compressor
is usually air cooled, e.g. on
reefer containers by means of
air from the condenser
ventilator or on stationary
systems by means of a
separate ventilator.
Lubrication by forced lubrication
46
system

SEMI HERMETIC COMPRESSOR

47

Hermetic compressor

Hermeticcompressorsare
hermeticallysealedmeaningthat
thecasingofthecompressoris
fullywelded.
Usedinsmallerrefrigeration
plantsassmallairconditioning
units,domesticrefrigeratorsand
domesticfreezers.
Fromthefactorytheseplantsare
filledwithanadequateamountof
refrigerantandlubricatingoil.
If the compressor breaks
down it has to be renewed as
you can not repair it.
48

Hermetic compressor

Therefrigerantvapoursare
suckedintothecasing,through
theelectricmotorforcoolingand
intothecylinder.
Fromthecylinderthe
compressedvapoursare
dischargedthroughtheoutlet
pipeonthecompressor.
Thesurroundingairusually
providessufficientcoolingofthe
compressor.
Aswiththeothercompressorsthe
lubricationoilisincontactwith
therefrigerantandmustbe
compatiblewiththerefrigerant
beingused.
49

HERMETIC COMPRESSOR
PISTON TYPE

50

HERMETIC SCROLL

Scroll compressors
Compression mechanism of Scroll
Compressor.
Thescrollcompressorisarotating
compressorandworksbymeansoftwo
helices,onestationaryandonemakingan
eccentricmotion.
Asthemovablehelixrotatesavolumeis
capturedandcompressedbybeingforced
towardsthecentreofthehelix.
Anoutletvalveisplacedinthecentreand
thecompressedgassesleavethe
compressorhere.
Thescrollcompressorisahermetic
compressorandtherefrigerantvapoursare
suckedintothecasing,throughthe
electricmotorandintothehelicesinthe
51
top.

HERMETIC SCROLL

The advantage of the scroll

compressor is that it weights
about 1/3 of a piston compressor
with the same output.
There are fewer movable parts and
much less vibration and noise
levels compared to the piston
compressors.
The scroll compressor is becoming
more frequently used as better
materials have been developed
for the helices, making the
compressor more reliable.
with the scroll compressor the
demand for lubrication of the
helices are very high and that the
outlet temperatures of the
vapours are very high as well.
52

Hermetic scroll compressors

53

FUNCTION - SCROLL

54

scroll compressors

Compressioninthescrolliscreatedbytheintersectionofanorbiting
spiral.Gasentersanouteropeningasoneofthespiralsorbits
55

Sliding vane compressor

56

Rolling piston compressors.

57

Rolling piston compressor

58

Rotary Compressor

These compressors
are used mainly in
house hold
applications but
modern practice sees
there use in cargo
conditioning.
A variation on this is
the multi blade type
where the rotor has
slots cut in it, fitted to
which are spring
loaded blades.
Alternately the blades
may rely on
centrifugal force. 59

Rotary Compressor

Both these types , when the

compressor is stopped the
sealing pressure and oil film
are broken and there fore
the suction and discharge
are common. This reduces
starting loads but requires a
suction non return valve to
be fitted.
Where these are fitted to
large refrigeration systems
it is possible to use variable
speed thyristor controlled
electric motors. Thereby the
compressor can run at
optimal
revolution
to
maintain plant efficiency.
60

Twin screw compressor

61

62

Centrifugal compressor

63

Centrifugal compressor

64

2 Stage Centrifugal compressor

65

By the nature of the system a

possibility exists whereby liquid
may be passed to the
compressor suction
To prevent serious damage,
some form of unloading device is
normally fitted.
In this case the suction valve
assembly is held on the liner by
a heavy gauge spring.
In the event of liquid passing to
the compressor the suction valve
will lift against this spring

66

unloader
Normal oil
pressure moving
sleeve down
against the spring
pressure.
Unloaded
condition the oil
pressure is
released pin
moves upward by
the spring
pressure causes
the valve to lift
67
from its seat.

unloader

68

Lubricants
Lubricatingoilisnecessaryfortheoperationofthe
compressorandastheoilinrefrigerationsystemsisin
contactwiththerefrigerantapartofthisoilwillbe
transportedwiththerefrigerantintothepipesand
components.
Theimportantissuehereisthattheoilmustbesolublewith
therefrigerantinorderfortheoiltobetransportedbackto
thecompressorwiththereturningrefrigerant.
Abalancebetweentheoilbeingtransportedintothepipesand
theoilreturningtothecompressorwilloccurandthe
amountofoilinthecompressorwillbeconstant.

69

Different types of oil are available for lubrication and in

refrigeration systems the two most used types are mineral oil
and synthetic oil.
Mineral oil is produced by refining crude oil and was used as
lubricant with the old types of refrigerants (CFC and HCFC)
because these refrigerants and mineral oil are soluble.
When introducing HFC-refrigerants (e.g. R 134a) the use of
mineral oil was no longer possible as the two were not soluble
and synthetic oil was introduced.
Synthetic oil is produced by means of a chemical process and is
the most widely used oil for refrigeration systems using HFCrefrigerants.
The synthetic polyol-ester oil used is very hygroscopic which
means that the oil will absorb water from the moisture in the air.
This makes the procedures that have to be addressed when
filling or refilling a compressor with oil different from earlier.
The time the oil can be exposed to the ambient air must be as
short as possible and once a can of oil has been opened any
70
leftover must be disposed of.

1.Crankcasesuctionpressureentersherefromcapillary
tubeSurgechambercushionsrapidpressurefluctuation
2.Ariseincrankcasepressurebecauseofrisein
evaporatorloadincreasethepressureagainstthebellows
andcompressestherangeadjustingspring.
3,compressionoftherangeadjustmentspringsallows
thevalvespringstomovethepushpinsandvalve
needlepointtowardthevalveseat
4.Thevalvethrottletheflowofcontroloiltothe
crankcasecausingthecontroloilpressuretobuild
up,oilenterscapacitycontrolcircuitthroorifice
fromcompressoroilpumpcircuit.
5.theincreasedoilpressurepushestherelaypiston
againstthespringopenspassagesbetweentheoil
pumpandtheunloaderpowerelements,
6.thepumpoilpressureintheunloaderpower
elementsforcesthepistonupwardspivotingthelifting
fork
7.Thelifterpinsdropandseatthesuctionvalve
loadingthecylinder
71

Condenser

72

reduces the heat

transfer capacity of the condenser, the tubes should be cleaned by
tube brush.
Alternatively, a ready mixed inhibitive scouring acid can be used, with
subsequent
neutralization. Such agents must be suitable for use with the tube
materials, and
Applied in strict accordance with the chemical manufacturers
instructions and
environmental protection.
2. The end cover should be inspected for wastage, caused by erosion
and corrosion
especially the division plate. Zinc anodes to be renewed.
3. The tube ends on both sides of the end plate to be leak tested
using soap solution
or any leak detector.
4.Finnedcoils,especiallyoutdoorcondensercoils,iffittedmustbecleanedfrequently.
73
5.Thewatersideofheatexchangercoilsshouldbecleanedofanyaccumulationsof

Baffle plate arrangement(D type)

74

Tube repair work

75

Tube stack

76

Condenser1
Generally a water cooled tube cooler.
A safety valve and vent are fitted. The purpose of the
vent is to bleed off non-condensibles such as air which
can enter the system when the suction pressure is
allowed to fall below atmospheric or can be contained
within the top up gas.
The presence of non-condensibles is generally indicated
by a compressor discharge pressure considerably above
the saturation pressure of the refrigerant.
The coolant flow to the condenser is sometimes
temperature regulated to prevent too low a temperature
in the condenser which can effect plant efficiency due to
the reduction in pressure.
77

Receiver

Below the condenser, or sometimes as a separate unit, is

the reservoir.
Its purpose is to allow accurate gauge of the level of
refrigerant in the system.
In addition to this it also allows a space for the
refrigerant liquid when the system is 'pumped down'.
This refers to the evacuation of the refrigerant gas to the
condenser to allow maintenance on the fridge system
without loss.
For system not fitted with a reservoir, a sight glass is
sometimes incorporated on the side of the condenser.
Care should be given to ensuring that the liquid level is
not too high as this reduces the surface area of the
cooling pipes available for condensing the liquid and can
78
lead to increased discharge pressures.

Sight Glass

Sight glass are often of the Bulls eye form.

This allows the operator to ensure that it is only
liquid, and not a liquid/gas mix going to the expansion
valves.
On some designs a water indicator is incorporated,
this is a coloured ring in contact with the liquid, when
water is detected it changes colour, typically from pink to
blue.

79

Moisture indicator

Green ~ Dry

Yellow ~ Wet

The moisture indicator serves to

detect if there is moisture leaving
the filter drier and is usually
situated in the liquid line just after
the filter drier.
It is of vital importance that the
moisture indicator indicates dry
as we dont want moisture
entering the TXV. In the TXV we
have a pressure and temperature
drop and here the moisture will
freeze to ice. The ice will block
the flow in the TXV and no
refrigerant can enter the
evaporator thus hindering the
refrigeration unit from removing
heat from the cargo space
80

Thermostat
These two elements form the main temperature control
of the cold rooms.
The Thermostat is set to the desired temperature and
given a 3 to 4 degree differential to prevent cycling.
When the temperature in the room reaches the pre-set
level the thermostat switch makes and the room
solenoid is energised allowing gas to the refrigerant
liquid to the expansion valve.
A manual over ride switch is fitted as well as a relay
operated isolating contact which shut the solenoid when
the defrost system is in use.
81

SOLENOIDE VALVE

The solenoid valve is a

electro magnetic valve which
provides automatic opening
and closing of liquid and gas
lines. A solenoid valve is an
electrically activated valve
that can either be open or
closed
When the coil (3) is
energised the pilot orifice (4)
is opened, and the
diaphragm (1) moves into
the open position.
A burnt out coil a damaged
diaphragm or blockage by
dirt will cause the valve to
82
mal function.

SOLENOID VALVE

83

Filter Drier
Can be either a compacted solid cartridge or bags of
dessicant. The main purpose of this unit is to remove the
moisture from the refrigerant.
Moisture cause two main problems.
Firstly it can freeze to ice in the evaporator and cause
blockage.
Secondly it can form acids by reaction with the freon
refrigerants. This acid attacks the copper in the lines and
deposits its in other parts of the system.
This can become particularly troublesome when it is
deposited on the compressor mechanical seal faces
leading to damage and leakage.
Fine particles which could possible block the expansion
valve are removed.
84

FILTER DRIER

85

Filter Drier

1.Gauge
connection

10.Casing

2.Cover

11.Inlet
connection

3.Joint

12.Ovalflange.

4.Withdrawing
handle.

13.Charging
connection

5.spring

14.Centerbolt.

6.Distancepiece 15Dryingagent.
7.Divisionplate. 16.Retaining
sleeve.
8.Feltwashers.
17.Outlet
9.Gauzeplates. connection.
86

Filter Drier
Driers are used in the
liquid line to remove
any water moisture
accidentally admitted
to the system.
The common drying
agents are silica gel
and activated Alumina
which can be activated
by heating

87

FILTERS IN REFRIGERATION CIRCUIT

The filters are removed from location by
shutting the inlet and outlet valves of the
equipment.
The filters are cleaned using electro cleaner
and later flushed with low pressure air.
The drying agent is renewed if found to be
saturated with moisture. (if silica gel is the
drying agent, a change in colour will confirm
saturation with moisture)
The filters are fitted back to its original
location; the air trapped is purged and filter put
in operation.
88

The system shown is

typical of that fitted on
many ships other than it
is more common to
have two low
temperature rooms
rather than one.

89

Cold rooms
Meat Room-Low temperature room typically working at
-17oC
Veg/ handling room-typically working at +4oC
Compressor
Generally of the single stage, reciprocating type. Larger
systems have multiple cylinders with an unloader system
using the suction pressure as its signal.
Refrigerant is compressed in the compressor to a
pressure dependent upon the temperature of the cooling
water to the condenser, and to a lesser extent the volume
of gas in the system.
As the temperature of the cooling water rises so does the
minimum temperature of the refrigerant liquid rise, and
90
with it the corresponding saturation pressure.

Compressor safety devices

The compressor is protected by three safety switches;

The OP switch or Oil Differential Pressure switch compares
the measured lubricating oil pressure to the Suction
(crankcase) pressure. Should the differential pressure fall
below a pre-set minimum (about 1.2 bar) then the
compressor will trip and require a manual reset to restart.
A time delay is built into the circuit to allow sufficient time
for the lubricating oil pressure to build up when starting
before arming the circuit.
The HP or High Pressure switch, is fitted to the outlet of
the compressor before the isolating valve. On over
pressurisation (dependent on the refrigerant, up to about
24bar bar for R22) the switch will trip the compressor and
a manual reset is required before restart.
The LP or Low Pressure switch when activated ( at about
1
91

Compressor control devices

This normally takes the form of an LP cut out pressure
switch with automatic reset on pressure rise. The cut out
set point is just above the LP trip point say at about
1.4bar. An adjustable differential is set to about 1.4bar to
give a cut in pressure of around 2.8 bar. The electrical
circuit is so arranged that even when the switch has
reset, if no room solenoid valves are open the compressor
will not start. This is to prevent the compressor cycling
due to a leaky solenoid valve.
In addition to this extra LP switches may be fitted which
operate between the extremes of the LP cut in and cut
out to operate compressor unloaders.
Some modern systems contain a rotary vane compressor
92
with variable speed (frequency changing) control

The aim of the thermostatic expansion valve is to take care of the

greatest possible filling of the evaporator, in a way that liquid not
will escape out into the suction pipe of the compressor.
This is done by regulating the supply of refrigerant to the
evaporator, so it just equals the amount that evaporates during
absorption of heat in the evaporator.
As the valve is controlled by the super-heating temperature at the
outlet of the evaporator, and the change of this, it is necessary
to use some of the last part of the evaporator for the
superheating of the refrigerant.
The thermostatic expansion valve consists of a small bulb
containing liquid refrigerant (same type as in refrigeration
system).
The bulb is mounted on the outlet pipe of the evaporator and feels
the temperature of the refrigerant vapours leaving the
93
evaporator.

To determine the superheating of the refrigerant the valve also needs

to measure the pressure in the evaporator which can be made
inside the TXV (internal pressure equalisation) or by means of a
separate pipe (external pressure equalisation).
When the temperature is increasing the pressure in the bulb will
increase, and by decreasing temperature the pressure will
decrease.
The pressure from the bulb, is via a capillary tube, lead to the top of
the valve. In the top of the valve there is a membrane which will
move up- or downwards depending of the changes in the pressure
in the bulb.
Below the membrane there is a spring and a valve stem, which have
connection to the nozzle thus opening the valve with increasing
pressure and closing the valve with decreasing pressure.

94

The three forces, which have influence on the membrane, are

therefore:
P1
the pressure in the bulb
P2
the pressure in the evaporator
P3

the pressure of the spring

P1

Membrane
P2

P3

There must be a balance between these three pressures so that: P1

= P2 + P3

95

When the bellow moves downwards, the valve stem will open for
the supply of refrigerant to the evaporator. This opening will
lead to cooling down of the bulb and thereby a pressure drop in
the bulb. The pressure P1 will decrease.
The bellow will begin to move in an upward direction, if the
pressure and the spring are unchanged. The valve will try to
prevent deviation from taking place.
When the valve cone moves toward closing, the amount of liquid
flowing into the evaporator will decrease. When a smaller
amount of liquid is supplied to the evaporator, the superheating
temperature at the evaporator outlet will increase.
The increased temperature will increase the pressure P1 in the
bulb, and the valve will begin to open. The relation between the
three pressures in the valve, will determine how much the96valve
will open.

Thermostatic
Expansion valve

The purpose of this valve is to

efficiently drop the pressure of
the refrigerant.
It achieves this by passing the
liquid through a variable orifice
giving a constant enthalpy
pressure drop.
The refrigerant at lower
pressure has a corresponding
lower boiling point (saturation
temperature).
Under cooling in the condenser
increases the efficiency of the
plant by allowing more heat to
be absorbed during the
vapourisation process.
97

Bernoulli Effect
For horizontal fluid flow, an increase in the velocity of
flow will result in a decrease in the static pressure.

98

Thermostatic
Expansion valve

In addition it also reduces the

internal heat absorption
process that occurs during the
expansion stage which is due to
a small degree of flash off as
latent heat (of vaporisation) is
absorbed from surrounding
liquid to reduce the
temperature of the bulk liquid
to the new corresponding
saturation temperature for the
reduced pressure.
By this process of boiling
(vapourization) and latent heat
absorption i.e. change of state,
the refrigerant removes heat
99
from the cold rooms.

Thermostatic
expansion valve

The expansion process is

controlled by the action of
the bellows and push pins
acting on the orifice valve
plate.
The bellows is controlled by
a bulb which measures the
temperature of the gas at
outlet from the evaporator.
To ensure no liquid passes
through to the compressor,
the expansion valve is set
so that the gas at outlet
from the evaporator has 2
to 3 degrees of superheat.
100

Thermostatic
expansion valve

For larger systems where a

significant pressure drop exists
across the evaporator it is
necessary to fit a 'Balance line'.
This is a small bore tube which
feeds the outlet pressure back
to the thermostatic valve
'motor' element. Therefore the
measured temperature is
directly related to the
superheat temperature at
outlet pressure.
Some systems are designed so
5% liquid is available through
the evaporator to coat the
internal surfaces of the tubes
increasing
heat
transfer
101
efficiency.

Thermostatic Expansion Valve

102

Thermostatic expansion valve

103

Gas from the system to be pumped down to the

condenser
Circuit breaker of the compressor switched off and
sign board men at work to be placed.
Close the compressor discharge valve and release
the pressure by slackening the drain plug of the oil
separator.
Open the float valve and take out the float out of
the chamber carefully and clean internals thoroughly
with a clean rag and blow dry air such that the
partition mesh is cleaned.
Overhaul the oil return needle valve and fit back the
float as original with new gaskets and seal rings.
After tightening all the fittings, open the compressor
discharge valve one turn and close back to pressurize
the oil separator for leak test.
Once leak test is satisfactory, the suction and 104

ELECTRONIC TEMPERATURE CONTROL

SYSTEM
Operation:
Thetemperaturesensormeasures
thetemperatureofthecooledair
leavingtheevaporator.The
registeredtemperatureis
continuouslycomparedinthe
controller,withthepre-set
referencetemperature.Assoonas
adifferentialoccursbetweenthe
measuredandrequired
temperatures,thecontrollersends
electricimpulsestothemotor,
whichmovesthespindleofthe
pilotvalveupordown.
105

ELECTRONIC TEMPERATURE
CONTROL SYSTEM

If,forexample,theair
temperaturerisesthemotor
willmovethespindleup.The
springforcewilldecrease,the
pressureontopofthepistonof
themainvalvewillincrease,
andthevalvewillmoveopen
slightly.Asaresult,the
evaporatorpressureand
temperaturewilldecrease,the
capacitywillincreaseandthe
airtemperaturewillfallagain.
Intheeventofamalfunction,
theregulatingsystemshould
becheckedinaccordancewith
theoperatingmanual 106

Thesevalvesareusedinconnection
withfloodedcoolersorevaporators
toensurethattheliquidlevelremains
constant,thevalvesbeingcontrolled
byafloatarrangementinthe
evaporatororcondenser.The
simplestcontrolofthissortisadirect
acting,ballfloatvalve.
Forfloodedevaporators,e.g.shell
andtubeevaporatorswithrefrigerant
intheshell,theexpansionvalveare
automaticallycontrolledtomaintain
aconstantliquidlevelineitherthe
evaporatororcondenser.

107

Thesimplestcontrolofthis
sortisadirectacting;
float-controlledvalveis
showninthefigure
above.Whenliquidis
condensed,itflowsinto
thefloatchamberandthe
valveopenstoallow
passagetotheevaporator.
Topreventgaslocking
occuringassomeofthe
liquidrefrigerantinthe
floatchamberevaporates,
aventpipeisfittedtothe
evaporator.Thisventpipe
hastoincorporatea
capillarytube,orvery
smallorifice,toprevent
excessiveflow:faulty
operationofthistypeof
valvecanbecausedby
blockageinthisventpipe
108

Thesevalvesareusedin
connectionwithflooded
coolersorevaporatorsto
ensurethattheliquidlevel
remainsconstant,thevalves
beingcontrolledbyafloat
arrangementintheevaporator
orcondenser.Thesimplest
controlofthissortisadirect
acting,ballfloatvalve.
Forfloodedevaporators,e.g.
shellandtubeevaporators
withrefrigerantintheshell,
theexpansionvalveare
automaticallycontrolledto
maintainaconstantliquid
levelineithertheevaporator
109
orcondenser.

SAFETY FEATURES FITTED IN A VAPOR COMPRESSION

SYSTEM

1.High-pressure cut out switch.

2.Low-pressure cut in/cut out switch.
3.Differential Oil pressure safety cut out switch.
4.Pressure control on the condenser.
5.Refrigeration compressor abnormal alarm and stop .
6.Refrigeration compressor motor overload stop.
7.Safety spring on the discharge valve of
reciprocating compressor to prevent damage due to
entry of liquid refrigerant.

110

Safety controls and devices.

Most of these controls are electric switches actuated by
bellows movement via amplifying leverage.
The bellows moves in response to pressure changes
transmitted from the sensing point via a connecting tube.
High pressure safety cut out:
used to protect against high discharge pressure which will
overload the compressor and may damage components.
The control is set to stop the compressor motor at a
pressure of about 90% of the maximum working pressure
of the system.
Some controls restart the compressor automatically on
drop in pressure others have a manual reset mechanism.
111

Low pressure safety cut out: used to protect against

too low a suction pressure the control is normally set to
stop the compressor at a pressure corresponding to a
saturation temperature 5 deg below the lowest
evaporating temperature. It is also used as a
temperature control stopping and starting the
compressor to maintain the desired pressure and hence
the temperature.
Oil pressure safety cut out :Used to protect against
too low oil pressurein forced lubrication system.It is a
differential control using two bellows, one side
represents low side pressure and the other responds to
the oil pressure.The oil pressure must always be greater
than the low side pressure for the oil to flow. If the oil
pressure falls below a minimum value the control stops
112
the compressor after a certain time has lapsed.

Thermostats: these are temperature controlled electric

switches can be used for both safety and control
functions.
1. When fitted to compressor discharge lines they are
set to stop if the compressor discharge temp is too
high.
2. used to control the temp in a refrigerated space by
cycling the compressor on and off or by opening and
closing a solenoid valve in the liquid line.
113

High pressure safety

cut out

used to protect against high

discharge pressure which will
overload the compressor and
may damage components.
set to stop the compressor
motor at a pressure of about
90% of the maximum working
pressure of the system.
Some controls restart the
compressor automatically on
drop in pressure others have
a manual reset mechanism.

A.Bellow B. Pressure pipe connection C.Guide washer D.Catch

E.Catch spring F.Switch arm G.Spring contact J.Main Spring
K.Screwed spindle for Adjusting pressure
114

Hp cut out

Thebellows
connectedbysmallbore
pipebetween
compressorand
condenser
Excesspressure
expandsthebellowand
movestheswitcharm
catcharounditspivot.
Theupperendslipsto
therightofthestepand
releasestheswitcharm
sobreakingelectrical
contactcausingthe
115
compressortocutout.

Hp cut out

116

a ) CAUSES OF TOO HIGH DELIVERY PRESSURE

1. Air or non-condensable gas in the system.
2. The cooling water is too warm or an insufficient quantity is
passing through the condenser.
3. Temperature of cooling water is too high.
4. Fouling of condenser.
5. Condenser cooling water valve inoperative.
6. Mud or scale blocking the condenser tubes.
7. Too much refrigerant liquid in the condenser/receiver
(overcharge of refrigerant).

117

RECTIFICATION, (High Pressure)

1. Purge the air/non condensable gas from the
condenser.
2. Inspect and clean the water valve and water
filter, and
make sure that the water valve is
opened wide enough.
3. Clean the condenser tubes.
4. Drain off the excess refrigerant liquid into an
empty cylinder.

118

Low pressure safety cut out used to protect

against too low a
suction pressure
set to stop the
compressor at a
pressure corresponding
to a saturation
temperature 5 deg
below the lowest
evaporating
temperature.

1.moving blade 2.fixed contact 3.spring

4.differential adjustment pad.5.lock nut 6. Plat
form 7 lever 8. Bellows unit.

It is also used as a
control stopping and
starting the compressor
to maintain the desired
pressure and hence the
119
temperature

Lp cut out

Thepushpin
operatestheswitchthro
acontactwhichis
flippedopenorclose
throacoiledspring
plate
Withthecontactopen
thespringiscoiled
Outwardmovement
ofthepincompresses
thespringandthisthen
flipsthecontactto
closethecompressor
startingcircuit.
120

Lp cut out

121

TOO HIGH SUCTION PRESSURE.

CAUSES
Too much liquid refrigerants being fed through
the expansion valve.
Sensing bulb not fixed properly
Leaky suction valves.
RECTIFICATION
Adjust the expansion valves and check the
sensing bulb.
Remove the cylinder covers, check all the
valves, repair or renew and test.

122

Oil pressure safety

cut out.

Used to protect against too low

oil pressure in forced lubrication
system.It is a differential control
using two bellows, one side
represents low side pressure and
the other responds to the oil
pressure.
The oil pressure must always
be greater than the low side
pressure for the oil to flow.
If the oil pressure falls below a
minimum value the control stops
the compressor after a certain
time has lapsed
1.Micro switch 2.Gland nut
3.O Ring seal 4gland
5.Recess filled with grease
123
6.spindle7.spring 8.piston

OIL SEPERATOR
Oil separator
usually fitted in
the discharge
line from the
compressor .
The separation
of oil is
mechanical, the
slowing down
and change of
direction of the
gas/oil stream
throwing out the
oil.
124

Back pressure regulator valve

This valve is fitted to the higher temperature rooms,

vegetable and flour (+5oC) only and not to the Meat and
Fish rooms (-20oC).
They serve two main purposes.
Firstly when all solenoid valves are opened they act as
system balancing diverters, that is they restrict the liquid
flow to the rooms which can be kept at the higher
temperature and deliver the bulk to the colder rooms.
Secondly they serve to limit the pressure drop across the
expansion valve by giving a set minimum pressure in the
evaporator coil. This in turn limits the temperature of the
refrigerant thereby preventing delicate foodstuffs such as
vegetables from being damaged by having air at very low
temperatures blown over them. Ultimately they may also
be set to provide a safety limit to the room temperature
by restricting the pressure to give a corresponding 125
minimum saturation temperature of 0oC.

126

Pressure gauge

Pressure gauges are used for

measuring pressures in the system.
Most units are equipped with two
pressure gauges one measuring the
suction pressure and one measuring
the discharge pressure of the
compressor. These gauges indicate
the pressures, but are not very
accurate.
If an accurate reading is needed the
service manifold should be connected
and the pressures taken from these
gauges.
The inner scale is the pressure scale
and the oouter scales indicate boiling
point temperatures for different
refrigerants corresponding to the
127
pressure scale.

Pressure gauge

Pressure gauges are used for

measuring pressures in the system.
Most units are equipped with two
pressure gauges one measuring the
suction pressure and one measuring
the discharge pressure of the
compressor. These gauges indicate
the pressures, but are not very
accurate.
If an accurate reading is needed the
service manifold should be connected
and the pressures taken from these
gauges.
The inner scale is the pressure scale
and the oouter scales indicate boiling
point temperatures for different
refrigerants corresponding to the
128
pressure scale.

129

POSSESS THE FOLLOWING PROPERTIES:

1)GOOD CHEMICAL STABILITY :There should be no chemical

reaction with the refrigerant or materials in the system.
2)GOOD THERMAL STABILITY :They should not form hard carbon
deposits at hot spots in the compressor(In valves and discharge
ports)
3)LOW VISCOSITY: This is the ability of an oil to maintain good
lubrication properties at high temperature and good fluidity at low
temperature i.e. to provide a good lubricating film at all times.
4)LOW WAX CONTENT: Particularly important in the case of CFC
and HCFC plants, operating at low evaporating temperature, as
separation of wax particles from the refrigerant -oil mixture may
cause problem by blocking expansion and regulating valves.
5)LOW POUR POINT AND FLOW POINT:Ability of the lubricating oil
to remain in a fluid state at the plants lowest evaporating
temperature. Lubricating oils with a low pour point are easier to
circulate through the refrigerating plants low pressure side.
6)MOISTURE FREE AND ANTI- FOAM CHARACTERISTICS:Any
moisture added with lubricating oil may cause corrosion or would
form ice and choke the expansion valve. The lubricating oil
containing a certain amount of dissolved refrigerant will be
130
diluted during the idling of the compressor and causes oil foaming

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR LUBRICATING OIL

SYSTEM:

131

In a reciprocating compressor lubricating oil system, a gear pump

or a lobe type of pump in which the inner rotor having 3 lobes is
rotated inside an outer rotor having 4 lobes, the pockets of increasing
and decreasing area, thus giving a pumping action.
The pump which is driven by the crank shaft takes oil suction from
the crankcase through a suction strainer (filter).
The discharged oil from the pump passes through a fine filter and is
branched to the capacity control mechanism (unloader) and
another line which lubricates main bearings, bottom end
bearings and the gudgeon pin bush through drilled passage of
crankshaft and connecting rod.
The oil also lubricates the shaft seal (mechanical seal) and then
returns back to the crankcase through an orifice to maintain the
line pressure.
A pressure gauge is fitted to the discharge side of the pump for
checking the lubricating oil pressure and sight glass is fitted in
the crank case for checking the crankcase lube oil level.
In case of excessive high back pressure in the line, there is a
pressure relief valve fitted on the discharge side of the pump
which returns the oil back to the crankcase.
To protect against too low oil pressure, the lubricating oil line is
connected to a differential oil pressure switch which cuts off
the
132
compressor in the event of too low oil pressure.

COMPRESSOR STARTING AND STOPPING TOO OFTEN

ON LOW- PRESSURE SWITCH.
CAUSES
Evaporator coils clogged with frost.
Liquid, suction or expansion valve filters clogged.
Sensing bulb on expansion valve has lost charge.
The delivery valves of the compressor leaking.
Leaky solenoid valve.
Expansion valve chocked with ice.
RECTIFICATION
Defrost coils.
Pump down and clean filters.
If delivery valves are leaking, remove cylinder head,
examine, replace if necessary.
Detach thermal bulb from suction line and hold in palm
of one hand, with the other hand gripping the suction line;
if flow of refrigerant is felt, bulb has not lost its charge. If
133
no flow is noticed, replace expansion valve.

CAUSES
Insufficient gas in system.
Too much oil circulating in system.
Improper adjustment of expansion valves.
Blockage in liquid pipe, expansion valve or
suction filters.
RECTIFICATION
1. Evacuate, isolate, remove, inspect and clean
filters.
2. Charge with more refrigerant.
3. Inspect to see whether oil has accumulated
anywhere in the system. If accumulated, then
retrieve the collected oil back into compressor
4. Set the expansion valves to feed more
134
refrigerant.

CAUSES
1. Too much cooling water to the condenser.
2. Cooling water is too cold.
3. Liquid refrigerant is coming back from the
evaporator.
4. Leaky delivery valve or worn out/broken piston
rings.
RECTIFICATION
1. Regulate the water supply and adjust by
regulating the water flow to get correct
condensing temperature.
2. Adjust the expansion valve and check that the
expansion valve bulb in contact with evaporator
pipe and fastened correctly.
135
4. Remove the cylinder cover, inspect the valve

Defrost system

Moisture freezes onto the evaporator eventually causing a

restriction and reducing the efficiency of the plant. This
must be periodically removed.
For Veg and Flour rooms, were restricted to 0oC minimum
by the back pressure valve, this is carried out once per
day.
For the Meat and Fish rooms this has to be carried out
two or more times. Due to the low temperature in the
rooms it is necessary to fit a drain heater.
When on defrost the solenoid valve is shut and the fan is
off.
On some systems at end of defrost the solenoid valve is
opened momentarily before the fan is started. This allows
moisture to be snap frozen onto the surface of the
element, creating a rough increased surface area
and
136
thereby increasing the heat transfer rate.

Effects of under and over charge

The effects of overcharge are a full condenser/receiver
gauge glass. System pressures are not effected until
highly overcharged when a possibility of excessive HP
pressure exists.
Undercharge causes failure to maintain cold room
temperatures and compressor short cycling. Compressor
cycling is caused by there being insufficient gas to
maintain the compressor loaded even with all room
solenoids open.
In extreme the compressor will cut in and out.
Undercharge is detected by low levels in the
condenser/receiver gauge glass/ bubbles in liquid sight
glass, compressor short cycling and low suction
137
pressures.

Topping up the refrigerant

A filling connection is fitted in way off the filter dryer,
either directly onto it or on the inlet line after the inlet
shut off valve. This allows additional refrigerant to be
introduced into the system via the dryer element.
The normal procedure is to shut or partially shut the inlet
to the filter. The compressor is now sucking from the
system and delivering to the condenser where the gas
liquifies. The filter dryer is on the outlet from the
condenser therefore with its inlet valve shut the liquid
level begins to rise in the reservoir. As the only gas
entering the system is now coming from the top up line
the compressor will tend to reduce the suction side
pressure as it evacuates the system into the condenser.
The inlet valve can be briefly opened to allow more
refrigerant into the system.

138

PRESSURE SWITCH
CAUSES
Condition may be due to
Insufficient water flowing through condenser.
Clogged condenser.
High pressure cutout incorrectly set, adjusted
incorrectly.
System overcharged with refrigerant.
RECTIFICATION
Determine if water has been turned off.
Adjust water regulating valves.
Check for scaled or fouled condenser and clean the
condenser.
Check setting of high pressure cutout.
High pressure cutout may be tripping due to
139
insufficient condenser capacity because condenser

This may cause the refrigeration compressor to

overheat, with a high discharge pressure and condensing
temperature.
There are possibilities of small air bubbles in the liquid
sight glass of the condenser.
Condensing pressure of the refrigerant in the condenser
will be high.
If there is excessive air, it may reduce the cooling
capacity of the system, making the compressor to run for
the extended period of time.
It may cause the gauge pointer of the pressure gauge to
jump indefinitely.
CAUSES:
During charging refrigerant or oil, air may enter into the
system.
If Freon-12 is used air may leak into the suction line
because the working pressure of the Freon-12 refrigerant
is close to the atmospheric pressure.
140
During standby mode air may enter into the system

AIR IN THE SYSTEM, contd.

ACTION:
Air in the system can be removed by collecting the
system gas in the condenser, leaving the condenser
cooling water on and venting out the air from the top of
the condenser because air will not be condensed in the
condenser but remain on top of the condenser above the
liquid refrigerant.
Connect the collecting cylinder to the purging line of the
condenser, open the valve, and collect air in the cylinder.
After purging the air from the system dont forget to shut
the purging valve.
Check the level of the refrigerant in the system. If
required, charge the system with fresh refrigerant.
Restart the compressor with all safety precautions.
141

During charging of refrigerant and lubricating oil

and after renewal of any components like
solenoid valve, exp valve, drier air may enter into
the system.
If Freon-12 is used air may leak into the suction
line because the working pressure of the Freon-12
refrigerant is less than the atmospheric pressure.
During standby mode air may enter into the
system .
Through the system valve glands and leaky
compressor seal during pumping down operation
If the LP cut out does not function then vacuum
conditions could be produced as a result of
compressor not stopping this could induce air
into the system.
142

Removal of contaminated refrigerant

1. The pumping down of the gas to be carried out to collect the complete
system gas to the condenser and later close the condenser outlet valve.
2. Switch off the circuit breaker.
3. The empty Freon gas cylinders must be cooled in a fish room to bring
the temperature approx. -18 deg C.
4. The cooled cylinders are connected to the charging valve between the
condenser and filter drier unit.
5. Open the empty cylinder valve and condenser outlet valve, the liquefied
gas from the condenser is transferred to the bottle due to the
differential pressure.
6. Renew bottles to collect all the gas present since single bottle would not
be enough to collect the gas.
7. The reason for more gas bottles is that temperature of bottles rise
during collection process equalizing the pressure of the condenser and
bottle.
8. Renew silica gel on completion of removing the entire contaminated
refrigerant.
9. Charge fresh Freon gas to the system to normal condenser level.
10. It may be required to renew silica gel couple of times even after
renewing the refrigerant, due to left over moisture adhering to the
143
walls of condenser.

INDICATION
The presence of moisture is indicated in the sight
glass fitted in the liquid line
Moisture in the System comes with the ingress of air in
the system.
CAUSES

Moisture will tend to develop inter crystalline embrittlement of brass

or copper bellows, such as used in the high pressure control switch;
and leads to corrosion on compressor valves, pistons, shaft, etc
Moisture may freeze at the expansion valve, giving some of the
indication of under charging. Moisture will contribute to the corrosion
in the system and may cause lubrication problems and breakdown of
the lubricating oil in the reciprocating compressor.
Moisture can freeze to ice in the evaporator and cause blockage
inside the evaporator coil.
Moisture can form acids by reaction with Freon refrigerant. This acid
attacks the copper lines and deposits in the other parts of the
system.
Thus moisture causes adverse troublesome effects when it is
deposited on the compressor mechanical seal faces leading to
damage and leakage and the fine particles could possibly block144the

ACTION, (moisture in the system)

1. In a refrigeration system it is essential to
reduce the moisture content of refrigerant to a
minimum by careful drying of components and
by fitting filter drier units with drying agents in
the system.
2. The operation of the filter drier in refrigeration
is to remove moisture and to prevent other
contaminants entering and blocking the
expansion valve or deposit in the compressor,
mechanical seal faces leading to damage and
leakage.

145

UNDERCHARGE OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Underchargingmeanseitherthesystemischargedwithlesser
refrigerant,orithasleakedoutfromthesystem.Thesystemrunswith
lessamountofgasincirculation.
INDICATION:
Compressor is running hot and performance of the
compressor falls off due to high superheat temperature
at the suction side of compressor.
Suction and discharge pressure of the compressor is
low.
Large vapor bubbles in the liquid sight glass.
Low gauge readings in the condenser.
Ammeter reading for the compressor motor is lower
than normal.
Rise in temperature of the room which is to be cooled.
Compressor is running for extended period of time.
146

UNDERCHARGE OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM,

contd.
CAUSES: Leakage of refrigerant at the
1. Shaft-seal
2. Flange couplings and joints
3. Valve glands etc.
4.Leakageofgasthroughthecondensertubesduetocorrosion.
ACTION:
Identify and rectify the leakage of refrigerant from the
system.
Clean the filter and drier.
Charge the system with fresh refrigerant if required.

147

SYSTEM
INDICATION:
The liquid level in the condenser is too high (high
condenser gauge reading). This will reduce the available
condensing surface, with corresponding increase in the
saturation temperature and pressure.
High pressure switch of the refrigerant compressor
activates and stops the compressor.
There is possibility of excessive liquid refrigerant getting
to the evaporating, giving icing at the compressor suction,
and a pressure drop across the expansion valve.
The cold room temperature may rise, if the evaporator is
flooded.
CAUSES:
It may be due to the reason that excessive refrigerant
has been charged in the system.
High delivery pressure may also be due to
148
air/incondensable gases present in the system.

SYSTEM, contd.
ACTION:
Remove the refrigerant from the system. This is done by
connecting a cylinder to the liquid line charging valve,
starting the compressor, and then operating the charging
valve.
Purge the air from the system and maintain effective
cooling. While purging there is always some gas will pass
along with air hence the regulation says the purging has
to be collected in recycling cylinders and same has to be
recorded.
Remove ice from the regulator by using any of the
defrosting methods

149

150

TROUBLE SHOOTING
1. AIR IN THE SYSTEM:
1.High condenser pressure.
2.Presence of small bubbles in the sight glass
2. MOISTURE IN THE SYSTEM :
1.High condenser pressure.
2. Low evaporator pressure.
3. Compressor stops.
3.UNDER CHARGE:
1.Low condenser pressure.
2. Large bubbles in the sight glass.
3. Compressor works hot.
4. Room temperature goes up.
151

TROUBLE SHOOTING, contd.

4.OVER CHARGE:
1.High condenser pressure.
2. Sight glass shows full.
3. Insufficient cooling of rooms.
5.LUB OIL IN THE SYSTEM:
1.Condenser temperature goes high.
2. Evaporator temperature gets high.
3. Frost on the suction pipe of the compressor.
6.FROSTING ON THE EVAPORATOR:
1.Room temperatures goes high.
2. Freon liquid may return to the compressor.
152

METHODS FOR TESTING FOR LEAKS

(1)USE OF SOAP SUDS
To prepare soap suds for testing, use a soap and water
solution of about the consistency of liquid hand soap,
which will lather freely, or work up a lather on the brush
by rubbing the wetted brush on a cake of soap.
A few drops of glycerine added to the solution will cause
the lather to remain wet longer.
When applying the soap suds, paint the soap lather on
the joint all the way around, and examine the joint
thoroughly for bubbles.
When the joint is located so that a part of it is not visible,
use a pocket mirror. It will sometimes take a full minute or
more for bubbles to appear at a small leak.
Questionable spots should be covered with lather and
examined again.
153

(2) USE OF THE HALIDE TORCH

Small Freon-12 leaks are detected by a special designed
torch known as a "Halide Torch."
Atmosphere suspected of containing Freon-12 gas is
drawn through an exploring hose into the burner by an
injector action.
The air sample passes over a copper reactor plate in the
burner chamber, which is heated to incandescence by the
flame.
If there is even a minute trace of Freon-12 present, the
torch flame will turn from its normal blue or neutral colour
to a characteristic green colour as it comes in contact
with the reactor plate.
The shade of green will depend upon the relative amount
of Freon-12 present, being paler for small concentrations,
and darker for heavier concentrations. Excessive
quantities of Freon-12 will colour the flame a vivid purple,
and may even extinguish it by crowding out the supply of
154
oxygen in the air.

The lit candles indicate the presence of ammonia gas by

giving off a cloud of dense white smoke.
4.Litmus, or other indicating papers: (for Ammonia
Plants)
The paper, when wet, indicates the presence of ammonia
gas by change in colour, e.g. red litmus paper turns blue.
Routine Inspections Leak detection should be carried out
every 1,000 hours of operation, special attention being
paid to brazed joints, welded joints, gaskets, flanges,
valve stems, compressor shaft seals, and areas where
there are signs of an oil leak. The high-pressure side of
the system may easily be tested with the plant running,
but it may be necessary to stop the compressor, and
allow the pressure in the low-pressure side to rise
sufficiently. The amount of refrigerant in the system
should also be strictly monitored as a drop in level may
indicate the presence of a leak.
In the event of a major leak, the initial leak test should
be
155
made using the soap bubble method.

accurate method of leak detection. There are many

instruments for detecting CFC and HCFC refrigerants and
ammonia on the market. The most commonly employed
operating principles are the semi-conductor, ionization or
corona formation, and infrared detection.
The detector contains an internal pump that draws air into
a probe, or tube. If refrigerant gas is present in the
sample, the electrodes in the sensing element generate a
current, and an output signal is obtained. In modern
refrigerated cargo installations, leak detection sensors
fitted in the holds and machinery spaces activate audible
and visual alarms located in the control room in the event
of a refrigerant leak.
Leak detector torches are used to locate leaks of CFC and
HCFC refrigerants. This method is based on the colour of a
flame that surrounds a glowing copper element. The
flame turns blue-green if the air being consumed contains
the refrigerant.
156
These torches should only be used in well-ventilated

Refrigerants
Desirable properties of a refrigerant
1.

Low boiling point (otherwise operation at high vacuam

becomes a necessity)

2. Low condensing pressure (to avoid heavy machine plant

scantling and reduce the leakage risk)
3. High specific enthalpy of vaporisation ( to reduce the quatity of
refrigerants in circulation and lower machine speeds, sizes
etc.)
4. Low specific volume in vapour state (reduces size and
increases efficiency)
157

Refrigerants
5.High critical temperature (temperature above which vapour
cannot be condensed by isothermal compression)
6.Non corrosive and non solvent (pure and mixed)
7.Stable under working conditions
8.Non flammable and non explosive
9. No action with oil ( the fact that most refrigerants are
miscible may be advantageous e.e. the removal of oil
films, lowering pour points etc, provided separators are
fitted
10.Easy leak detect
11.Non toxic
12.cheap, easily stored and obtained

158

Refrigerant 12
R12 is halogenated hydrocarbon derived from
methane (CH4) with the hydrogen being displaced by
chlorine and fluorine. The resulting compound is
Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2) also known as Freon
12
R12 is considered non-toxic except in high
concentration producing oxygen deficiency. However on
contact with flame it breaks down to form chlorine gas
and phosgene (COCl2).
R12 escaping under pressure can cause skin
damage on contact. It is non-irritant and not considered
flammable.
Working pressures and temperatures are moderate
and the high critical temperature (112oC) is well above
the working range
159

bar. This requires compressors to be of robust

design. The critical temp of the gas is low : 31 oC
and this causes problems for cooling in areas
where the sea temperature is high. It also has a
low coefficient of performance. The gas is not
explosive or flammable but a leak is potentially
dangerous as it causes asphyxiation and is also
toxic.
Why Ammonia is not preferred : The good qualities
of ammonia as a refrigerant is offset by its toxicity,
flammability, and pungent odour. Ammonia when
mixed with water corrodes brass, bronze and
similar alloys, for this reason ammonia systems use
only steel in their construction.This makes it
difficult for the air conditioning market where
copper has been the base material for piping and
plant.
Ammonia is normally considered to be the most
dangerous of the primary refrigerants and has160

Why Ammonia is not preferred , (contd.):

A limited range of ammonia/air mixtures (16-27%
ammonia by volume) can be ignited by flame and
an explosion may result. Ammonia must not be
allowed to come into contact with iodine, bromine,
chlorine, hypochlorite or mercury; there is an
explosion hazard in each case.
Low concentrations of ammonia vapour may cause
only irritation and discomfort: high concentrations
can destroy body tissue. The action is more
pronounced on moist tissues: eyes, nose, breathing
passages, and moist areas of the skin may be
burned by high concentrations. Liquid in this form
with ammonia can cause severe burning of the skin
and eyes. As the eyes are particularly delicate
organs, even small amounts of ammonia can be
harmful. The full effects of ammonia on the eyes
may not be apparent for 8-10 days but, ultimately,
161
blindness may result.

Refrigerant and the environment

The release of CFC refrigerant in to the atmosphere is
harmful to the environment. The CFCs released broken
down to release chlorine atoms which destroy ozone,the
stratospheric gas which acts as a filter of ultra violet light
from the sun.
The increased UV light on earth as a result of ozone
depletion will cause skin cancer,interfere with immune
system and harm aquatic system and crops.
CFCs along with other green house gases inhibit the
release of heat radiated from the earth, contributing to
global warming.If the global temp increase the mean sea
level will rise.
162

Refrigerant and the environment

To protect the global environment, an international
agreement, Montreal protocol signed in 1987 controls the
use and production of CFC refrigerant and other ozone
depleting substances throughout most of the world.
It currently mandates that the production of the
refrigerant R11,R12 and R502 is to be phased out
by1997.
CFCs are charactorised under the Montreal protocol
according to the extent to which they damage the ozone
layer

163

Refrigerants
The production of R12 and R11 has now stopped under
the Montreal Protocol and EU regulation on ozone
depleting gasses.
A short term solution has been conversion to HCFC's
such as R22 (HCFC's have an Ozone Depletion Rate
{ODP} 2-15% of CFC's) but this refrigerant also has a
harmful effect on the environment, although far less
damaging than R12.
HCFC's are also targeted for eventual production phase
out as controlled substances, with usage totally banned
by the EU in new equipment rated at 150kW and over
from the 1st Jan 2000.
In some countries such as Germany and Sweden tighter
164
restrictions are in force.

Alternative refrigerant
The suitable alternative refrigerant for R12 and R502
currently limited to R22,ammonia(R717) and R134a.R22
will continue to be the first choice for all new marine
installations.
Ammonia (R17) is receiving serious consideration as an
alternative refrigerant as it has ODP and GWP of 0.
R134a has been developed as an alternative for R12, it
has an ODP of 0 and GWP of one tenth that of R12. But it
has a drawback in being un suitable for use with mineral
oil, and is expensive.
At present R134a is considered to be an acceptable
refrigerant for small system (below 5hp) operating at high
evaporating temperature and low condensing
temperature.
165

ODP and GWP values of marine refrigerant.

RefrigerantODPGWP
R111.01.0
R120.983.05
R5020.230.365
R220.050.365
Ammonia0.000.00

166

167

168

169

New refrigerants such as R134a and R404A, which are

HFC's may offer a longer term solution against harmful
emissions.
They contain no chlorine atoms and thus do not attack
the ozone layer but they are greenhouse gasses and may
be subject to future legislation.
An uncertainty over the long term future of HFC's has led
to growing interest in old natural refrigerants such as
ammonia and carbon dioxide or hydrocarbons such as
propane and iso-butane.

170

controls the rate of flow to the evaporator to suit the rate of

evaporation.
The pressure of the liquid is reduced to the evaporating pressure
so that the
temperature of the refrigerant entering the evaporator is below
than that required in the refrigerated space.
The liquid vapour refrigerant mixture then flows through the
evaporator, extracts heat from the refrigerated space and
changes to a dry saturated vapour at approx the same
temperature and pressure at which it left the flow control valve.
The compressor which receives the low pressure, low
temperature superheated vapour from the evaporator and during
the compression stroke the gas is compressed to a high pressure,
high temperature, superheated vapour.
If the condition of the refrigerant leaving the evaporator and
entering the compressor exists in liquid state Liquid knock can
take place in the compressor during compression stroke and this
can cause serious damage to the compressor.
The reasons for liquid refrigerant the entering the
compressor

171

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE SAFETY FEATURES

FITTED IN A VAPOR COMPRESSION SYSTEM

High-pressure cut out switch

Low-pressure cut in/cut out switch
Differential Oil pressure safety cut out switch
Pressure control on the condenser
Refrigeration compressor abnormal alarm and
stop .
Refrigeration compressor motor overload stop
Safety spring on the discharge valve of
reciprocating compressor to prevent damage due
to entry of liquid refrigerant.

172

methods used to carry out defrosting ?

Defrosting is termed as the removal of frost in the
evaporator coils which is formed due to presence of
moisture in the system
The method of defrosting in the system is done manually
or automatically
In manual operation, the evaporator unit is isolated
and opened. The frost formed is removed with the help of
blowing the compressed air over the evaporator coils and
the defrosted water is drained
In automatic operation ,a electric heater placed inside
the evaporator activates according to the set-timer in the
time clock.
The electric heater which is activated periodically
according to the pre set-timer melts the frost formed and
the defrosted water gets collected at the drip tray (placed
at the bottom of evaporator)and passes overboard
through a non-return drain pipe
Other methods of defrosting are Hot gas defrosting,
defrosting173Hot

Air conditioning system

Compressor used
are may be
reciprocating or
rotary. In nearly all
cases a method of
varying the quantity
of delivery is
incorporated.
For reciprocating
compressors this may
take the form of an
unloader and for
rotary variable speed
drive.
174

System Protection

The compressors have

protection systems
similar to their fridge
counterparts with High
Pressure and Low
Pressure cut outs that
require manual resets.
In addition to this an
interlock is fitted so
that the compressor
cannot be started if the
air handling unit fan is
not running. Should
the fan be stopped the
compressor will cut
out.
175

System Protection

An alternative to this
is to fit solenoid
valves before the
compressor, as in
the diagram above,
which open only
when the fan is
running.
The compressor will
trip on Low suction
pressure.
The purpose of both
these systems is to
prevent liquid
returning to the 176
compressor.

Air Handling Unit

A single unit contains

two individual
evaporators which are
independently supplied
by a compressor.
A belt driven fan
delivers air to the
evaporators via a fine
mesh air filter.
This filter is removed on
a regular basis and
washed in a soapy
solution containing
disinfectant.
The air passes over the
evaporator where it is
cooled
and
releases
177
water vapor.

Air Handling Unit

The water condenses and

is fed away via a drip tray
and pipe work, the water
is quite clean and can be
used for domestic
purposes after treatment
although this practice is
not common. On the
above design a catcher
has been fitted to remove
water droplets entrained in
the air, these are not
always fitted.
A perforated pipe is fitted
after the evaporator
allowing low quality steam
to be fed into the air
improving its humidity
178
when too dry.

Contamination of ships air

Contamination of ships air conditioning
systems by legionnella bacteria
Legionnaires disease is caused by bacteria
which flourishes in stagnant water or
sludge .
It can also be found in wet matrix filters,
which may be found in the ships filtration
system for the air conditioning plant
179

Contamination of ships air

Main danger areas of air contamination are
Air inlet arrangements-This may be direct or
indirect from the air conditioning room when
incorrectly designed may lead rain water onto the
filters.
It may also be allowed to accumulate in the
space where drainage is not efficient
Filters-These filters made of a 25mm thick
synthetic material can trap water as well as
insects and soot and provide a rapid growth area
for the bacteria.
Regular washing is essential

180

Contamination of ships air

Cooler unit (dehumidifier)Ineffective drainage can allow water to stagnate in the
catchment sumps. Also, where air velocities are high over
the block, air can become entrained and carry moisture
into the air stream. An efficient moisture eliminator is
required.
HumidifierSteam humidifiers, where fitted, do not appear to be a
problem.
However, adiabatic humidifiers of which the water spray
type appears to offer a special hazard.
The enclosed tank and matrix elements provide an ideal
breeding ground for the bacteria which may then be
carried into the air stream when sprayed.
181

Contamination of ships air

Recommended countermeasures.
Filters-Should be washed in 50ppm solution on a regular
basis
Coolers-Special attention to drainage arrangements as
well as super chlorinating the condensate sump every
3months.
Plenum insulation-Insulation to be examined and
damaged areas resealed

182

Air conditioning individual unit system

183

Central system-chilled water distributed

184

Central system single air duct

185

Central system twin air duct.

186

Central system single air duct and reheat

187

Indirect brine system-4

Fivespacestwoevaporatorsonebrineheaterandoneinjection
188

Maintenance
Theimportanceofmaintenance1.topreventlossofrefrigerantcausedbyleakage2.to
keepaircoolersorevaporatorsfreefromfrost3.topreventneitherairormoisture
enteringintothesystem4.TomaintainOillevelinthesystem.
Dailymaintenance:1.Checkthatthecondensingpressureandevaporatingpressureare
correctandthattheoilpressuredropacrossthefilteriswithinthespecifiedvalue.
2.Inspectthecompressorunitforanyabnormalnoiseandvibration.
3.Checkthesuction,dischargeandoiltemperaturewithinlimits,Thehighestoil
temperatureisapproximately60degC.
4.checktheoillevel.
5.checkthetightnessofoilseal.oilleakagescanbetoleratedwhereasgasleakagecan
not.
6.ifanoilseparatorisinstalled,checkthatoilisreturnedtothecrankcaseandthatthe
oilreturnlineiswarmerthanthecrankcase.
PERIODICMAINTENANCE:Periodicmaintenancedependsupontheoperationtime
andisdifferentfordifferenttypesandmakesofcompressors.
189

Leak detection equipments

1.Electronic leak detectors:Thedetectorcontainsaninternalpumpthat
drawsairintoaprobe.Ifthegasispresentinthesample,theelectrodein
thesensingelementgenerateacurrent,andanoutputsignalisobtained.
Inmodernrefrigeratedcargoinstallationsleakdetectorsensorsfittedin
theholdsandmachineryspacesactivateaudibleandvisualalarms
locatedinthecontrolroomintheeventofrefrigerantleakage.
Leak detector torch:Themethodusedisbasedonthecolourofaflame
thatsurroundsaglowingcopperelement.Theflameturnsbluegreenif
theairbeingconsumedcontainstherefrigerant.
Sulphur candles:Thelitcandlesindicatethepresenceofammoniagas
bygivingoffacloudofdensewhitesmoke.
Litmus or other indicating papers:Thepaperwhenwetindicatesthe
presenceofammoniagasbychangeincolouregredlitmuspaperturns
blue.
190

Refrigerant charging
Systemwhichhavebeenopenedtotheatmosphereduring
repairshouldbeflushedthroughtoremovesolidparticlesand
evacuatedtoremovemoistureandnoncondensablegases.
Flushing:fitafinemeshfilterorstockinthestrainerinthe
compressorsuctioninlet
2.Chargethesystemwiththepressuretestmediumandrun
thecompressortocirculatethegasthrothesystem.
Topreventblockagetheexpansionvalveandotherregulating
controlswithsmallorificemustbebypassed.
3.stopthecompressoratintervalsandcleanthefilterrepeating
thisprocedureuntilnoparticlesarefound.
191

Refrigerant charging-2
Drying by evacuation: 1.connect a vacuum pump to system using
a short length of large bore pipe and open all valves in the system.
2.evacuate the system to a pressure of 6mm hg.
3.close the line between the system and vacuum pump. ( the
pressure in the system may not rise more than 2mmhg with in 5
mins.A rise in pressure indicates presence of water and/ or
leak.where water is present the system will be colder.than
surrounding.)
4. Check for water and/ or leaks carry out any repair and repeat
evacuation procedure until the pressure rise is less than 2mmHg.
When this is achieved the system is free of moisture and non
condensable gases and ready for refrigerant charging.
192

Refrigerant charging-3

1.Connectthecylindertothechargingvalveandpurgethelineofair.
2.Openthechargingandcylindervalvesandrunthecompressor.
3.Allowtheliquidtoflowintothesystem.
Iftheliquidischargedwithoutacompressorrunningthemustbe
slightlywarmerthanthesystem.
Precautions:1.liquidrefrigerantmustneverbechargeddirectlyintothe
compressorsuction.
2.Properlytestedcharginghosesareused,andthatnonreturnvalvesare
fittedwhenchargingintothehighpressuresideofthesystem.
193

Stop valve with gauge or charging connection.

194

Double seated
service valve

Front seat

Service Port

Protective cap
Stem

Inlet or outlet depending on application

Packing gland
Back seat

195

Service valves are, used when the refrigeration unit need

maintenance or repair.
The purpose of the service valves is to isolate parts of the
refrigerant system in a way that makes it possible to service the
system.
The service could either be refilling of refrigerant, measuring of
pressures in the system or replacement of a compressor or other
components.
There are different positions on the service valves:
Front seated position; isolate the system and makes it possible
to change components e.g. compressor.
Service position: makes it possible to empty and fill in refrigerant
or connect a pressure gauge via the service port for measuring
the pressure inside the system.
Back seated position: is the normal operation position
196

Defrosting
Provisionandrefrigeratedplantsaretobemaintainedregularlyto
controlthefrostdeposits.
1.Theriseofdeliveryairtemperatureincargochambersundernormal
operatingstatusisthefirstindicationoffrostbuiltuponthecooling
coils.
2.Theheattransfercoefficientbetweenairandtherefrigerantreduces
andthesuctionpressuremaygraduallydecreaseresultinginalossof
refrigerationcapacity.
3.Heavyfrostonthecoilwillreducetheairflowthroughthecooler
(evaporator).
Henceitisimportantthatthedefrostinghastobecarriedoutatthe
correcttimeintervalbythethemethodavailable.
Regardlessofthesystemcoolerfansarenotstartedbeforetheaircooler
197
coiltemperatureisreducedbycirculatinglowtemperaturerefrigerant.

Contaminants of refrigerant
MOISTURE:Ifmoisturepresentinthesystemexceedstheamountthat
therefrigerantcanholdinsolutionitwillexistsasfreewater.
Attemperature0degCthefreewaterwillfreezeintoice,restrictingthe
flowinevaporatorsandothercontrols.
Andalsoitformscorrosivecompoundswhichcausethefollowing.
1. Pittingandotherdamagetovalves,seals,bearingjournalsandother
polishedsurfaces.
2. Corrosionandstainingofvalvesetc
3. Prematurefatiguefailureofcompressorvalvespringsandreed
plates.

198

Contaminants of refrigerant

4.Detoriarationofthelubricatingoil,andtheformationofmetallicand
othersludgewhichtendtoclogvalvesandoilpassages.
5.Topreventmoisturerelatedproblems
A.Thesystemshouldbegastightanddriedthoroughlybyevacuating
beforechargingfreongas.
B.Drierunitsshouldbefitted.
C.Thesystemshouldbeinspectedregularlyforleaksandmaintained
gastighttopreventingressofmoistureladenair.
D.Whenaddingoiltothecompressorcleanoilfromanairtight
containershouldbeused.

199

Contaminants 2
Oil in the system:1.Thepresenceofoilinthesystemreducestheheat
transfercapacity,theproblembeinggreatestatevaporator,sinceoil
becomesmoreviscousatlowtemperature.
Toprevent,theoperationoftheoilseparatorshouldbecheckedregularly
toensureoilisbeingreturnedtothecompressorlubricatorsystem.
Theamountofoiladdedtothelubricationshouldbecloselymonitored.
Air and non condensable gases:Causeshighcondensingpressure,
excessivedischargetemperature,lossincompressorcapacityand
efficiency,excessivepowerconsumptionandpossibleoverloadingof
drivemotor.
Toprevent,thesystemshouldbeinspectedregularlyandairmi\ustbe
purgedoutandtheleakdetectedandrepaired.
200

Contaminants
Solid particles:Thepresenceofsolidparticlescancauseproblemsby
blockingthecontrolvalves,damagingcompressorbearingsandother
rubbingsurfaces.
Toavoidtheseproblemstakeprecautionswhencarryingoutrepair.
Fitclothfilterinthecompressorsuctionstrainer.

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Classification society requirements

1.to show that the installation was built and installed to
the satisfaction of Lloyds Register of shipping RMC
(Refrigerated machinery Certificate ) was assigned in the
register book.
In order to maintain its RMC Notation any classed
refrigerated cargo installation must undergo satisfactory
periodical suvey as folows.
Annual survey: Interevals 12 month.Purpose is to
establish that the condition of the installation as a whole
is satisfactory and the machinery is operating reliably and
may be expacted to continue to do so for ensuing 12
months.
With a view to minimising interference with operational
commitments, the survey requirements have been framed
to avoid any opening up or dismantling unless the ships
records or external examination indicate the presence of
202
some fault requiring attention.

Special survey: This is to confirm the findings of

examinations at the annual surveys by opening
up plant and machinery every five years for the
purpose of establishing that no cocealed defects
have devaloped.The following equipements are
opened up 1. Compressors 2.shell and tube
condensers and evaporators, 3. Pressure vessels
and piping and some insulation from the
refrigerated pipes to verify it has not been
effected by corrosion.4. The cargo chambers
lining and insulation.
Condition of class may be recommended when
objects are found which can not receive
immediate attention, but which do not jeopardize
the operation of the installation.
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Loading survey: Carried out at any time on one or

more chambers to certify their condition prior to loading
of refrigerated cargo.The chambers must be clean and
fitted with thermometers in working order. The electrical
generating plant is inspected and refrigerated macinery
seen in operation. The temperature of each chamber
subjected to survey is noted and enterd in the certificate

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205

206

Bernoulli Effect
For horizontal fluid flow, an increase in the velocity of
flow will result in a decrease in the static pressure.

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208

209

210

211

212

213

Air conditioning
Air conditioning is the control of humidity, temperature,
cleanliness and air motion.
Winter conditioning relates to increasing temperature and
humidity whilst
summer conditioning
relates to
decreasing temperature and increasing humidity.
Specific humidity-Is the ratio of the mass of water vapour
to the mass of dry air in a given volume of mixture.
Per cent relative humidity-is the mass of water vapour per
m3 of air compared to the mass of water vapour per m3 of
saturated air at the same temperature.
This also equals the ratio of the partial pressure of actual
air compared to the partial pressure of the air if it was
saturates at the same temperature. i.e. m/mg = p/pg
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Partial pressure, Dalton's Laws

Barometer pressure = partial pressure of N2 + p.p.O2 +
p.p.H2O,
from Daltons Law viz:
Pressure exerted by, and the quantity of , the vapour
required to saturate a given space ( i.e. exist as saturated
steam ) at any given temperature, are the same whether that
space is filled by a gas or is a vacuum.
The pressure exerted by a mixture of a gas and a vapour, of
two vapours, or of two gasses, or a number of same, is the
sum of the pressure which each would exert if it occupied the
same space alone, assuming no interaction of constituents.
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Dew point1
When a mixture of dry air and water vapour has a
saturation temperature corresponding to the
partial pressure of the water vapour it is said to
be saturated. Any further reduction of
temperature (at constant pressure) will result in
some vapour condensing.
This temperature is called the dew point, air at
dew point contains all the moisture it can hold at
that temperature, as the amount of water vapour
varies in air then the partial pressure varies, so
the dew point varies
216

Dew point2
It can be seen that cooling
a superheated vapour at
constant
pressure
will
bring it to the saturated
vapour line, or Dew point.
It can also be seen that
cooling
at
constant
temperature raises the
partial pressure until the
dew point is reached.

217

Dew point3

Therefore from the above

equation for determining
the relative humidity,
%R.H. = m/mg x 100 = p/pg x
100
= pdew/pg point x 100
where g refers to the sat
condition. This means dry
air contains the maximum
moisture content (100%
R.H.) at the saturation
conditions.
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Psychrometric chart

This chart is used for

finding the relative
humidity of air which
has been measured
using a 'wet and dry
bulb' thermometer. This
is a pair of
thermometers, one of
which has its bulb
wrapped in a damp
cloth.

The drier the air,the

greater the evaporation
of water off the cloth
and therefore the lower
the reading on the 'wet
bulb' thermometer.
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The naming of freon (or Actron) refrigerants comes from the

constituents.

For R12, formed by reacting methane with flourine and chlorine. This forms a molecule
containing 1 carbon atom, 2 flourine atoms and 2 chlorine atoms
Number of Carbon atoms
minus 1

number of hydrogen atoms

plus one

number of flourine
atoms

0 (1-1)

1 (0+1)

For R22, again formed by reacting methane with flourine and chlorine. This forms a molecule
containing 1 carbon atom, 1 hydrogen atom and 2 chlorine atom
0

the remaining bonds are taken by chlorine atoms

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Indirect (Brine) System

Calcium chloride is common secondary refrigerant used
for cargo ships and water is used for low temperature
installation with suitable anti freezing liquid such as
trichloroethylene
The main advantages:
1.Since the primary refrigerant is present only in the
machinery space the refrigerant loss by leakage can be
easily controlled.
2.The brine system is more easily controlled to give
accurate temperature
Control.
3.Greater flexibility in carrying cargoes simultaneously at
different temperature in different spaces.
4. Difficulties of oil recovery from evaporators.

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Indirect (brine) system

Onespaceandoneevaporator

222

Indirect (brine) system-2

Fivespacesandoneevaporator
223

Indirect brine System 3

Fivespacesandtwoevaporator
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exposed to refrigerant ?
Basic Rules for First Aid
When moving affected persons from low-lying or poorly ventilated
rooms where high gas concentrations are suspected, the rescuer
must be wearing a lifeline and breathing apparatus, and be under
continuous observation from an assistant outside the room.
Inhalation
Move the affected person into fresh air immediately. Keep the
patient still and warm and loosen clothing restricting breathing.
If the patient is unconscious, immediately call a doctor/ambulance
with oxygen equipment.
Administer artificial respiration until a doctor authorizes other
treatment.
Eye Troubles
Force eyelids open and rinse with a sterile isotonic (0.9%) NaCIsolution (salt water)
or pure running water continuously for 30 minutes.
Skin Injuries - Frost Sores
Wash immediately with large quantities of lukewarm water to reheat
the skin. Continue for at least 15 minutes, removing contaminated
clothing carefully while washing
Avoid direct contact with contaminated oil/refrigerant mixtures225
from

What are the advantages of an indirect system (using

brine) over a direct expansion system?
The main advantages of this arrangement compared to
direct expansion are:
A.The primary refrigerant is only present in the
machinery space, and the risk of loss by leakage more
readily controlled.
B.The brine system is more easily controlled to give
accurate temperature control. In a manual system, less
skilled operators are required. In an automatic system,
simpler automatic controls can be used.
C.Greater flexibility in simultaneously carrying cargoes
at different temperatures in different spaces is possible.

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What safety precautions are exercised in the

transfer and storage of refrigerants?
When adding refrigerant to the plant, it is essential that the
content of the cylinder be verified to prevent charging with the
wrong substance, which could cause an explosion or other
accident.
Contaminated refrigerant must be returned to the manufacturer
for possible recycling. On no account should it be reused or
discharged into the environment. Refrigerant containers must be
disconnected from the system immediately on completion of
transfer of refrigerant. Cylinders must not be overfilled. Frequent
determination of the weight of refrigerant must be made and the
permissible quantity of refrigerant for the cylinder never
exceeded. Substitution of the system refrigerant charge for
another refrigerant must not be made without the approval of the
authority concerned, the manufacturer, the installer or other
competent person, and the user.
a)
Keep away from heat.
b)
Do not drop.
c)
Ensure that blanked connections are tight.
227
d)
Never attempt to check the contents of a refrigerant

What are azeotropic blends? Name a commonly used HFC

azeotropic blend.
An azeotropic is a mixture of multiple components of
volatilities (refrigerants) that evaporate and condense as
a single substance and do not change in volumetric
composition or saturation temperature when they
evaporate or condense at constant pressure.
HFCs azeotropics are blends of refrigerant with HFCs.
ASHRAE assigned numbers between 500 and 599 for
azeotropic.
HFCs azeotropic R-507, a blend of R-125/R-143, is the
commonly used refrigerant for low-temperature vapor
compression refrigeration systems.
228

with a refrigerated compressor during

troubleshooting or repairs?
THE FOLLOWING SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ARE TO BE
FOLLOWED DURING OVERHAULING OF
COMPRESSOR:Pump down the entire refrigerant gas to the condenser.
Ensure that the entire system valves are shut and
isolated.
Isolate the compressor from its electric motor and switch
off the circuit breaker.
Place a safety board stating "MEN AT WORK" at the
circuit breaker.
Release the pressure on the compressor by slackening
the oil filling plug with
great care due to high internal pressure.
Correct tools are to be used with proper torque while
229
opening, tightening and holding bolts.

What is hot-gas defrosting? (3m)

Hot gas defrosting:
Hot gas defrosting uses the hot gas discharged from the
compressor to defrost coolers.
In large marine installations with multiple coolers, the hot
gas is fed directly from the compressor discharge line into
the outlet of the cooler to be defrosted.
The defrosting process condenses the hot gas, and the
resulting liquid condensate flows out of the cooler through
the inlet header, bypassing the regulating valves to the
receiver.
During the defrost cycle, the cooler on defrost is isolated
from the main liquid supply line and suction line by
automatic control valves.
230

What is a thermostat? Why and where are they

fitted in the system?
Thermostats are temperature controlled electric switches
which can be used for both safety and control functions.
They could be fitted to compressor discharge lines and
set to stop the compressor in the event of high discharge
temperatures.
They can also be used to control temperatures in a
refrigerated space by being designed to operate a
solenoid valve in the liquid line, which would start and
stop the compressor and thereby maintain the
temperature in the space.
Three types of elements are generally used to sense and
transmit a signal to the electrical contacts:- (i) A fluid
filled bulb connected thru a capillary to a bellow; (ii) A
themistor; and (iii) a bi-metal element.
231

ENGINE ROOM
VENTILATION
232

233

234

General

Ventilation for the ER is supplied via a ducted air system by three axial
flow fans. Fans 1 &2 are non-reversible and Fan 3 is reversible. 1 & 2 are
eachdriven by a 25kw motor at 1765 rev/min. And each have a capacity of
1000m3.min. at 75mmAg. Fan 3 is driven by 25kw motor at 1765 rev/min
and has a capacity of 1200m3/min at 70mmAg.
Fans 1 &2 are positioned on B Deck and Fan 3 on C Deck.
Air intake is through ventilator grilles, each of which is fitted with a
pneumatically operated fire damper. Each fire damper can be operated by
both remote and local manual control.
Excess air is exhausted from the ER through a grille which is located on
the aft side of the funnel at Compass deck level. A fire damper is lowered
to block the excess air grille in the event of a fire or release of CO2 in the
ER.
A small exhaust fan is provided at the welding booth position in the
workshop and is used to rid the position of smoke and fumes when welding
takes place. The fan has a capacity of 20m3/min. At 10mmAq.
Following a fire or release of CO2 gas, the smoke and/or gas may be
cleared from the engine room by running Fan 3 in the reverse direction.
All fans in the ER are stopped automatically as part of the CO2 release
procedure.
procedure
235

Purifier Room
The Purifier Room in the ER is supplied with air trough the
ducted air system but has a separate exhaust system The
exhaust fan has a capacity of 280m3/min. At 40mmAg. And is
driven by a 4.8kw motor at 1725 rev/min. The fan discharges
to atmosphere via ducting terminates at the funnel.
Emergency Generator Room
Although not a part of the ER, the Emergency Generator
Room, located in the Accommodation on the Upper Deck, is
still a machinery space and is included here.
The room is equipped with a suooly fan which has a capacity of
40m3/min. At 20mmAg. This fan is fitted into the
compartment external bulkhead and is complete with an inlet
weather cover..
The Emergency generator fan is automatically stopped when
the accommodation ventilation is group stopped in the event of
fire.
236

Alarms
Fan 1, abnormal
Fan 2, abnormal,
Fan 3, abnormal,
Purifier room fan abnormal,
ECR No.1 unit cooler abnormal,
ECR No.2 unit cooler abnormal,Workshop unit
cooler abnormal.

237