LOGIC

PRE-TEST

A theorem stated that if sum of a real number

with itself is equal to its square, then the number
is 0 or 2.
a.
b.

Identify the statements that exist in the theorem.

Construct a truth table for the following statement.

p q r p ~ q r .
c.

Prove the theorem using the statement verified in

part (b).

DEFINITION OF LOGIC

Logic is a systematic way of thinking that allows

us to deduce new information from old
information and to parse the meaning of
sentences.. (Richard)

Please use logic to combine existing information

to produce new information:
1. Circle X has radius equal to 3
2. If any circle has radius r, then its area is square
units.

STATEMENT

A statement is a sentence or a mathematical

expression that is either definitely true (T) or
definitely false (F) BUT NOT BOTH.

DECIDE WHETHER OR NOT THE FOLLOWING

ARE STATEMENTS. IN THE CASE OF A
STATEMENT, SAY IF IT IS TRUE OR FALSE.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia.

5 > 6.
x+1= 2.
If an integer x is a multiple of 6, then x is even.
Hello!

We use letter to denote statements such as

p,q,r,s,
We denote the truth value of a statement as
T (true) or F (false)

Example
r : Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia. (T)
q : 5 > 6. (F)
p : If an integer x is a multiple of 6, then x is even. (T)

When a sentence or statement contains a variable such as x, we

sometimes denote it as p(x)
Example :
p(x) : If an integer x is a multiple of 6, then x is even.

TRUTH TABLE

i.

ii.

A truth table displays the relationship between the truth

values of statements.
Logical possibilities =
Examples
2 statements

3 statements

p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

p
T
F
T
T
F
T
F
F

q
T
T
F
T
F
F
T
F

2 number of statements
logical
2 possibilities
4
2

r
T
T
T
F
T
F
F
F

logical
2 possibilities
8
3

SYMBOLIC LOGIC, SENTENTIAL

LOGIC

SYMBOLIC LOGIC is the study of the evaluation of arguments

through the use of mathematically inspired logical notation.
Mathematicans use (e.g.) the signs + and = to stand for the
mathematical concepts of addition and equality.
Logicians use signs such as and ~ to stand for the logical
concepts of disjunction and negation.
SENTENTIAL LOGIC (also called propositional logic) is the
simplest species of symbolic logic; it is the study of truthfunctional statement connectives.
Statement connectives are words used to make complex (or
molecular/compound) statements out of simpler (atomic/simple)
ones.

COMPLEX / MOLECULAR /
COMPOUND STATEMENT

A compound statement is a combination of two or more simple

statement.
There are many ways of combining simple statement to form
compound statement, but only five connectives that are commonly
used.

CONNECTIVES THAT ARE

COMMONLY USED
Negation
~
Conjunction

CONNECTIVES

Disjunction

Implication

Equivalence

NEGATION ~

The simplest truth function is negation (not).

It is written ~. (This sign is called a tilde.) This is placed before
the statement to which it applies.
Its output is the opposite of its input.
p

~p

This sign is used to translate not, it is not true that, it is false

that, it is not the case that, etc.
Some other logic books use the signs or .

(This is not the same as the mathematical concept of negative.)

I am not 8 feet tall. I am 8 feet tall.

CONJUNCTION

Conjunction (and), unlike negation, has two inputs.

Conjunction is written ^.
It goes between the two statements it connects (the
conjuncts).

pq

F
F
F moreover, however,
This translates
and,
but,
although, yet, etc.
Some other books use the signs or &.

DISJUNCTION

Disjunction (or) is written _. This sign is usually called a

wedge.

Its two inputs are called its disjuncts.

Translates or, either . . . or . . . and unless.

This leaves open the possibility that both sides are true. This
called the inclusive or.
The word or is sometimes used another way in English.
Compare:

Either Kelantan will be Liga Super Malaysia champs or Johor will be Liga
FAM champs. (Inclusive or)
Either Negeri Sembilan will be Liga FAM champs or Johor will be Liga
FAM champs. (Exclusive or)

IMPLICATION / CONDITIONAL

Material implication, also called the material

conditional is written . This sign is called the
arrow.

The if-part of a conditional is called the

antecedent, and the then-part is called the
consequent.
Some other books use the signs or .
This is used to translate if . . . then . . . , . . .
only if . . . and . . . implies that . . . .

EXAMPLE OF IMPLICATION
STATEMENT
Let say.. Ms. Suganty tells you that
If you participate in class,
then you will get extra points.

Antecedent : you participate in class. (fact 1)

Consequent : you will get extra points.

(fact 2 )

WHEN IS MS SUGANTYS
STATEMENT IS TRUE?
If

you participate in class (fact 1 true) and you get

extra points (fact 2 true). Then Ms Sugantys
statement is true.

If

you participate in class (fact 1 true) and you DO

NOT get extra points (fact 2 false), then Ms Suganty
did not tell the truth and the statement is false.

If

you DO NOT participate in class (fact 1 false), we

cannot judge the truth of her statement. She did not
tell you what would happen if you did NOT
participate in class. Since we cannot accuse her
making a false statement, we assign true to the
statement.

IMPORTANT!

An implication will be called FALSE only when

the antecedent (part before arrow) is TRUE and
the consequent (part after arrow) is FALSE

EQUIVALENCE

Equivalence, also called the biconditional, is

written
. This sign is called a double arrow.

Used to translate . . . if and only if . . . , its

abbreviation . . . iff . . . , and . . . just in case
Some other books use instead.

EQUIVALENCE

(CONT)

The Equivalence is used in ordinary language for the

specific purpose of clarification.
Example:

He will push button A if and only if the red light flashes

What we are saying here: If the red light flashes, then he will
push button A; and he will not push button A if the red light
does not flash

The two instances wherein the sentence is made false are :

If he pushes the button even though the light does not flash. OR
He fails to push the button when the light does flash

PRECEDENCE OF LOGICAL
OPERATORS
1.

Negation (~) is applied before any other logical operators.

2.

Conjunction (^) takes precedence over disjunction (

3.

Conditional () and biconditional ( ) have lower precedence

than conjunction (^) and disjunction ( ).

4.

The conditional () takes precedence over biconditional (

Thus we can write statements such as

without ambiguity :
Try :

).

TAUTOLOGIES & CONTRADICTION:

DEFINITION

A compound statement that is always true, regardless of

the assignment of truth values to its component
statements, is called tautology.
A compound statement that is always false is called
contradiction.
A statement that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction
is called contingency.
Example:

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES
In the process of reasoning, we often replace a
known statement with an equivalent statement
that more closely addresses the result that we
are trying to establish.
To ensure that this process produces a valid
mathematical argument, we must be able to
verify the statement we are replacing does indeed
have the same meaning as the one we replace it
with.
Two such statements are said to be logically
equivalent.

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES :
DEFINITION

Two compound statements are called logically

equivalent if they have the same truth value for
every possible truth value assignment to the
component statements.
Example:

Note: if two statements are logically equivalent,

then the biconditional of the two statements is a
tautology.
Example :

PROBLEMS WITH TRUTH TABLE

Truth tables are great. They can tell us almost

anything wed wish to know about a statement
but we would have to construct a huge truth
table if the number of statement increases. Eg: 5
statements, thus it has 25 32logical
possibilities !!!
Luckily there is an alternative to prove
biconditional statement by using deductive
reasoning

DEDUCTIVE REASONING

QUANTIFIERS

Source: Book of Proof, Richard Hammack

Source: Book of Proof, Richard Hammack

NEGATING STATEMENT

Source: Book of Proof, Richard Hammack

Source: Book of Proof, Richard Hammack

PROOFS

3 KEY TERMS THAT YOU SHOULD

KNOW
Theorem
Proof
Definition

THEOREM

A theorem is a statement that is true and has

been proved to be true.

PROOF

A proof of a theorem is a written verification that

shows that the theorem is definitely and
unequivocally true.
A proof should be
understandable and convincing to anyone who
has the requisite background and knowledge.
This knowledge includes an understanding of the
meaning of the mathematical words, phrases and
symbols that occur in the theorem and its proof.

DEFINITION

A definition is an exact, unambiguous

explanation of the meaning of a mathematical
word or phrase.

METHOD OF PROVING
1.
2.
3.
4.

Direct Proof
Contrapositive Proof
Proof by Contradiction
Mathematical Induction

Note: Please download Book of Proof

http://www.people.vcu.edu/~rhammack/BookOfProof/